Permit Requirements for Structural Retrofit Projects

Seismic Retrofit Techniques for Foundation Repair

Understanding foundation repair as a structural retrofit is crucial when considering permit requirements for such projects. Foundation repair, essentially a form of structural retrofit, involves reinforcing or replacing parts of a buildings foundation to ensure stability and safety. This process is not just about fixing visible cracks or settling issues; its about enhancing the overall structural integrity of the property.


When embarking on a foundation repair project, one must navigate through various permit requirements, which can vary significantly depending on local regulations. These permits are not merely bureaucratic hurdles; they serve to ensure that the work adheres to safety standards and building codes that protect both the property and its occupants. Foundation problems are the homeowner equivalent of finding out your car needs a new transmission right after the warranty expires helical pier installation Schaumburg floor. The need for permits underscores the importance of these repairs in maintaining the long-term viability of a structure.


For homeowners or property managers, understanding these permit requirements involves engaging with local building authorities early in the planning stages. This engagement helps clarify what specific documentation is needed, what inspections might be required during and after the work, and any special conditions that must be met due to local ordinances or zoning laws. For instance, in areas prone to seismic activity, additional reinforcement might be mandated, affecting both the scope of work and permit specifics.


Moreover, obtaining a permit often requires detailed plans from a licensed engineer or architect, demonstrating how the foundation repair will integrate with existing structures while improving upon them. These plans must detail every aspect of the project from materials used to methodologies applied, ensuring transparency and accountability throughout the retrofit process.


In essence, viewing foundation repair through the lens of structural retrofit highlights why permit processes are indispensable. They provide a framework within which repairs can be executed safely and effectively, ensuring that once completed, the building not only meets current standards but is also prepared for future challenges. This proactive approach not only safeguards investments but also contributes to community safety by maintaining high construction standards across all properties undergoing similar upgrades.

Seismic Retrofit Techniques for Foundation Repair

Lateral Load Considerations in Foundation Stabilization

When embarking on structural retrofit projects, understanding and adhering to local building codes is crucial, especially when it comes to foundation repair. These codes are not just bureaucratic hurdles; they are established to ensure safety, structural integrity, and longevity of buildings in various environmental conditions. For homeowners and contractors alike, navigating the permit requirements for such projects can be a daunting task, but its a necessary step towards compliance and peace of mind.


Local building codes serve as the blueprint for construction standards within a jurisdiction. They dictate everything from material specifications to construction techniques, ensuring that any work done meets a minimum standard of safety and durability. When it comes to foundation repair-a critical aspect of structural retrofitting-these codes become even more pertinent. Foundations are the literal base upon which buildings stand; any compromise here could lead to catastrophic failures.


Permit requirements for foundation repair under structural retrofit projects usually involve several steps. Initially, one must assess whether the project falls under repair, alteration, or new construction according to local definitions, as this classification can affect the complexity of permits needed. For instance, minor repairs might only require a simple permit or even just a notification, whereas significant alterations or additions might necessitate detailed plans reviewed by multiple departments.


The application process typically starts with submitting detailed plans that show both the existing condition and proposed changes to the foundation. These plans must often be stamped by a licensed engineer or architect who has assessed the projects compliance with seismic, soil, and load-bearing regulations specific to the area. The review process can take time as municipal bodies ensure that every aspect from waterproofing measures to reinforcement strategies aligns with code standards.


Moreover, during this phase, considerations like historical preservation laws come into play if the building holds cultural significance. This adds another layer of scrutiny where aesthetic and historical integrity must be maintained alongside structural enhancements.


Once permits are issued, inspections at various stages of repair are mandatory. These checks confirm that work progresses according to approved plans and adheres strictly to local codes. Non-compliance here could lead to work stoppage or even fines until corrections are made.


In summary, while permit requirements for structural retrofit projects involving foundation repair might seem overwhelming due to their technicality and regulatory oversight, they are fundamental for ensuring public safety and property value preservation. Engaging with knowledgeable professionals who understand these nuances can streamline the process, making compliance less of a burden and more of a pathway towards enhancing your propertys resilience against time and natures forces.

Integrating Seismic and Lateral Load Retrofits with Existing Foundations

Okay, so youre thinking about beefing up your house with a structural retrofit, smart move! But before you start jackhammering and pouring concrete, lets talk about permits, specifically when you need one for foundation work. Its tempting to just dive in, especially if youre a DIY whiz, but skipping the permit process can land you in hot water later.


Generally speaking, anytime youre messing with the structural integrity of your foundation, youre going to need a permit. Think about it: your foundation is literally the base of your entire house. Any changes, even seemingly small ones, can have major consequences if not done correctly. Were talking about potential cracks, settling, or even, in the worst-case scenario, collapse.


So, what kind of foundation work typically triggers a permit requirement? Things like underpinning (adding depth to the foundation), repairing or replacing significant sections of the foundation wall, adding a new foundation for an addition, or even just making major repairs to cracks or damage. Basically, if youre altering the load-bearing capacity or stability of your foundation, youll likely need a permit.


Why all the fuss? Well, the permit process is designed to ensure that your work meets local building codes and safety standards. It usually involves submitting plans for review by the local building department, and then having inspections done during and after the work to make sure everything is up to snuff. This protects you, your neighbors, and future owners of the property. It also helps ensure that the work is done by qualified professionals, if required by code.


Now, there might be some minor repairs that dont require a permit, like patching a small crack in a non-load-bearing section of the foundation. But honestly, its always best to check with your local building department to be sure. They can tell you exactly whats required based on your specific project and location. Its way better to be safe than sorry, and a quick phone call can save you a lot of headaches (and money) down the road. So, before you start digging, make that call!

Integrating Seismic and Lateral Load Retrofits with Existing Foundations

Case Studies of Successful Foundation Retrofit Projects

Okay, so youre staring down the barrel of a foundation repair project, and the city wants its pound of paperwork, right? Dont sweat it too much. Think of it like this: they just want to make sure your house doesnt, you know, suddenly become a pile of bricks. The "Required Documentation" bit is basically your way of proving youve thought things through and arent going to mess things up for yourself or your neighbors.


Generally, what theyre after boils down to a few key things. First, a detailed site plan. This isnt just a doodle on a napkin. Its gotta show the property lines, where your house sits on the lot, and exactly where youre planning on doing the repair work. They want to see how close you are to the property line, to any easements, and maybe even to utility lines.


Then there are the structural plans. This is where the engineer (you did hire a structural engineer, right? Seriously, do it) earns their keep. These plans need to spell out exactly what youre doing to the foundation. Whats being replaced? Whats being reinforced? What materials are you using? They need to see the nitty-gritty details, the dimensions, the load-bearing calculations – the whole shebang. Think of it as a blueprint for saving your foundation.


Often, youll also need some kind of soil report. They want to know what kind of ground youre building on. Is it stable? Is it prone to shifting? This helps them understand if your proposed repairs are appropriate for the soil conditions.


Beyond that, expect to provide manufacturer specifications for any materials youre using. This is especially important for things like epoxy anchors or specialized concrete mixes. They want to make sure everything meets code and is rated for the job.


Finally, dont forget the contractor information! Whos doing the work? Are they licensed and insured? The city wants to know that qualified professionals are handling the job. Proof of insurance is crucial, as it protects both you and the city should something go sideways.


Bottom line: gather everything meticulously. Double-check everything. And dont be afraid to call the permit office and ask questions. Theyd rather answer a few questions upfront than reject your application because you missed something. Think of it as a team effort – you, the engineer, the contractor, and the city – all working together to keep your house standing tall.

Okay, so youre staring down a foundation retrofit, which is already a big deal. Youve probably got that permit in hand (hopefully!), but the journey isnt over. Think of it like this: the permit is your permission slip, but the inspections are the teacher making sure youre actually doing the work right. These inspections, both during and after the retrofit, are super important. Theyre there to protect you, the structure, and honestly, everyone around you.


During the retrofit, expect inspections at key stages. Like, before they pour new concrete, someones gotta check the rebar placement and the formwork. Theyre making sure everything is up to code, properly sized, and not about to crumble under the weight of all that concrete. Its a "measure twice, pour once" kind of situation. Another inspection might happen after any underpinning is done, to verify the stability of the existing structure before moving on. These "in progress" checks are critical. If somethings wrong, its way easier (and cheaper!) to fix it before everythings buried or covered up.


Then comes the final inspection. This is the big kahuna. The inspector will scrutinize everything. Theyll check that all the work matches the approved plans, that proper connections were made, and that the retrofit actually achieved its intended purpose – which is, you know, keeping your house from falling down. Theyll be looking for things like proper drainage, adequate support, and compliance with all the relevant codes. If everything passes, you get the thumbs up and the permit is officially closed. If not, youll get a list of corrections that need to be made before you can get that final sign-off.


Look, nobody likes inspections. They can be a hassle. But trust me, these inspections are your friends. Theyre an independent verification that the work was done correctly and safely. They provide peace of mind, and they can save you a ton of headaches (and money) down the road. So, embrace the inspection process. Be prepared, ask questions, and consider it an investment in the long-term stability and safety of your home. Its worth it.

Okay, so youre thinking about skipping that permit for your foundation repair, huh? I get it. Permits seem like a hassle. But lets be real for a sec about the potential pitfalls of going rogue on something as crucial as your foundation. Were talking about the very thing holding your house up!


First off, think resale value. When you eventually decide to sell, a savvy buyer (or their inspector) will often ask about foundation work. If you cant produce a permit, red flags go up. Theyll wonder if the work was done correctly, to code, and whether it meets safety standards. This can seriously dent your asking price, or even scare buyers away completely. Nobody wants to inherit a potential structural nightmare.


Then theres the insurance angle. Imagine a future problem, like a sinkhole or earthquake, and you need to file a claim. If your insurance company discovers unpermitted foundation work, they might deny the claim, arguing that the unpermitted repairs contributed to the damage or werent up to code. Suddenly, youre on the hook for a hefty bill, all because you tried to save a few bucks on a permit.


Beyond that, there are actual penalties. Local authorities can issue stop-work orders, forcing you to halt the repairs until you get the proper permits. They can also slap you with fines, which can range from hundreds to thousands of dollars, depending on the severity and location. And youll still have to get the permit eventually, which means youre paying for the permit plus the fine plus the potential cost of redoing work that doesnt meet code.


Finally, and maybe most importantly, its about safety. Building codes exist for a reason. Theyre designed to ensure that structures are safe for the people who live in them. Unpermitted work might cut corners or use substandard materials, potentially compromising the structural integrity of your home and putting your family at risk.


So, yeah, permits can be annoying. But honestly, the potential headaches and financial risks of unpermitted foundation repairs far outweigh the cost and hassle of getting the proper approvals. Its just not worth it in the long run. Do it right, sleep soundly, and protect your investment. Trust me on this one.

Okay, so youre diving into the world of structural retrofits and need to wrangle the permit beast. Trust me, it can feel like a real beast sometimes. But a huge part of taming it involves knowing how to work with engineers and contractors. Theyre your allies in this process, your guides through the labyrinth of regulations.


Think of it this way: the engineer is the brains of the operation. Theyre the ones who analyze the existing structure, figure out the best way to reinforce it, and create the drawings that show everyone what needs to be done. Their stamp on those drawings is often what gets the permit application taken seriously. So, find an engineer whos experienced with retrofits, particularly in your area. Theyll understand the local codes and have a good working relationship with the permitting authorities. This can save you a ton of headaches down the line. Ask for references, look at their past projects, and make sure you feel comfortable communicating with them.


The contractor, on the other hand, is the muscle. Theyre the ones who actually put the engineers plans into action. A good contractor will be meticulous about following the plans, understand the importance of proper installation, and be able to navigate any unexpected challenges that arise during construction. Again, experience is key. Look for a contractor who has a proven track record of successfully completing similar retrofit projects. Ask about their experience with the specific types of materials and techniques that will be used.


Crucially, make sure both the engineer and contractor are properly licensed and insured. This protects you in case something goes wrong.


The relationship between the engineer and the contractor is also vital. They need to communicate effectively to ensure the project is done correctly and efficiently. Its a good idea to have regular meetings with both of them to discuss progress, address any concerns, and keep everyone on the same page.


Finally, remember that getting a permit isnt just about filling out forms. Its about demonstrating that the retrofit will be done safely and in accordance with the applicable codes. Having a skilled engineer and a reliable contractor on your team significantly increases your chances of a smooth and successful permitting process. Theyre not just building your retrofit; theyre helping you build a solid foundation for a structurally sound and legally compliant project. And thats worth its weight in gold.

Tracked vehicle configured as a dedicated pile driver

A pile driver is a heavy-duty tool used to drive piles into soil to build piers, bridges, cofferdams, and other "pole" supported structures, and patterns of pilings as part of permanent deep foundations for buildings or other structures. Pilings may be made of wood, solid steel, or tubular steel (often later filled with concrete), and may be driven entirely underwater/underground, or remain partially aboveground as elements of a finished structure.

The term "pile driver" is also used to describe members of the construction crew associated with the task,[1] also colloquially known as "pile bucks".[2]

The most common form of pile driver uses a heavy weight situated between vertical guides placed above a pile. The weight is raised by some motive power (which may include hydraulics, steam, diesel, electrical motor, or manual labor). At its apex the weight is released, impacting the pile and driving it into the ground.[1][3]

History

[edit]
Replica of Ancient Roman pile driver used at the construction of Caesar's Rhine bridges (55 BC)
18th-century Pile driver, from Abhandlung vom Wasserbau an Strömen, 1769

There are a number of claims to the invention of the pile driver. A mechanically sound drawing of a pile driver appeared as early as 1475 in Francesco di Giorgio Martini's treatise Trattato di Architectura.[4] Also, several other prominent inventors—James Nasmyth (son of Alexander Nasmyth), who invented a steam-powered pile driver in 1845,[5] watchmaker James Valoué,[6] Count Giovan Battista Gazzola,[7] and Leonardo da Vinci[8]—have all been credited with inventing the device. However, there is evidence that a comparable device was used in the construction of Crannogs at Oakbank and Loch Tay in Scotland as early as 5000 years ago.[9] In 1801 John Rennie came up with a steam pile driver in Britain.[10] Otis Tufts is credited with inventing the steam pile driver in the United States.[11]

Types

[edit]
Pile driver, 1917

Ancient pile driving equipment used human or animal labor to lift weights, usually by means of pulleys, then dropping the weight onto the upper end of the pile. Modern piledriving equipment variously uses hydraulics, steam, diesel, or electric power to raise the weight and guide the pile.

Diesel hammer

[edit]
Concrete spun pile driving using diesel hammer in Patimban Deep Sea Port, Indonesia

A modern diesel pile hammer is a large two-stroke diesel engine. The weight is the piston, and the apparatus which connects to the top of the pile is the cylinder. Piledriving is started by raising the weight; usually a cable from the crane holding the pile driver — This draws air into the cylinder. Diesel fuel is injected into the cylinder. The weight is dropped, using a quick-release. The weight of the piston compresses the air/fuel mixture, heating it to the ignition point of diesel fuel. The mixture ignites, transferring the energy of the falling weight to the pile head, and driving the weight up. The rising weight draws in fresh air, and the cycle continues until the fuel is depleted or is halted by the crew.[12]

From an army manual on pile driving hammers: The initial start-up of the hammer requires that the piston (ram) be raised to a point where the trip automatically releases the piston, allowing it to fall. As the piston falls, it activates the fuel pump, which discharges a metered amount of fuel into the ball pan of the impact block. The falling piston blocks the exhaust ports, and compression of fuel trapped in the cylinder begins. The compressed air exerts a pre-load force to hold the impact block firmly against the drive cap and pile. At the bottom of the compression stroke, the piston strikes the impact block, atomizing the fuel and starting the pile on its downward movement. In the instant after the piston strikes, the atomized fuel ignites, and the resulting explosion exerts a greater force on the already moving pile, driving it further into the ground. The reaction of the explosion rebounding from the resistance of the pile drives the piston upward. As the piston rises, the exhaust ports open, releasing the exhaust gases to the atmosphere. After the piston stops its upward movement, it again falls by gravity to start another cycle.

Vertical travel lead systems

[edit]
Berminghammer vertical travel leads in use
Military building mobile unit on "Army-2021" exhibition

Vertical travel leads come in two main forms: spud and box lead types. Box leads are very common in the Southern United States and spud leads are common in the Northern United States, Canada and Europe.

Hydraulic hammer

[edit]

A hydraulic hammer is a modern type of piling hammer used instead of diesel and air hammers for driving steel pipe, precast concrete, and timber piles. Hydraulic hammers are more environmentally acceptable than older, less efficient hammers as they generate less noise and pollutants. In many cases the dominant noise is caused by the impact of the hammer on the pile, or the impacts between components of the hammer, so that the resulting noise level can be similar to diesel hammers.[12]

Hydraulic press-in

[edit]
A steel sheet pile being hydraulically pressed

Hydraulic press-in equipment installs piles using hydraulic rams to press piles into the ground. This system is preferred where vibration is a concern. There are press attachments that can adapt to conventional pile driving rigs to press 2 pairs of sheet piles simultaneously. Other types of press equipment sit atop existing sheet piles and grip previously driven piles. This system allows for greater press-in and extraction force to be used since more reaction force is developed.[12] The reaction-based machines operate at only 69 dB at 23 ft allowing for installation and extraction of piles in close proximity to sensitive areas where traditional methods may threaten the stability of existing structures.

Such equipment and methods are specified in portions of the internal drainage system in the New Orleans area after Hurricane Katrina, as well as projects where noise, vibration and access are a concern.

Vibratory pile driver/extractor

[edit]
A diesel-powered vibratory pile driver on a steel I-beam

Vibratory pile hammers contain a system of counter-rotating eccentric weights, powered by hydraulic motors, and designed so that horizontal vibrations cancel out, while vertical vibrations are transmitted into the pile. The pile driving machine positioned over the pile with an excavator or crane, and is fastened to the pile by a clamp and/or bolts. Vibratory hammers can drive or extract a pile. Extraction is commonly used to recover steel I-beams used in temporary foundation shoring. Hydraulic fluid is supplied to the driver by a diesel engine-powered pump mounted in a trailer or van, and connected to the driver head via hoses. When the pile driver is connected to a dragline excavator, it is powered by the excavator's diesel engine. Vibratory pile drivers are often chosen to mitigate noise, as when the construction is near residences or office buildings, or when there is insufficient vertical clearance to permit use of a conventional pile hammer (for example when retrofitting additional piles to a bridge column or abutment footing). Hammers are available with several different vibration rates, ranging from 1200 vibrations per minute to 2400 VPM. The vibration rate chosen is influenced by soil conditions and other factors, such as power requirements and equipment cost.

Piling rig

[edit]
A Junttan purpose-built piledriving rig in Jyväskylä, Finland

A piling rig is a large track-mounted drill used in foundation projects which require drilling into sandy soil, clay, silty clay, and similar environments. Such rigs are similar in function to oil drilling rigs, and can be equipped with a short screw (for dry soil), rotary bucket (for wet soil) or core drill (for rock), along with other options. Expressways, bridges, industrial and civil buildings, diaphragm walls, water conservancy projects, slope protection, and seismic retrofitting are all projects which may require piling rigs.

Environmental effects

[edit]

The underwater sound pressure caused by pile-driving may be deleterious to nearby fish.[13][14] State and local regulatory agencies manage environment issues associated with pile-driving.[15] Mitigation methods include bubble curtains, balloons, internal combustion water hammers.[16]

See also

[edit]
  • Auger (drill)
  • Deep foundation
  • Post pounder
  • Drilling rig

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Piles and Pile Foundations. C.Viggiani, A.Mandolini, G.Russo. 296 pag, ISBN 978-0367865443, ISBN 0367865440
  2. ^ Glossary of Pile-driving Terms, americanpiledriving.com
  3. ^ Pile Foundations. R.D. Chellis (1961) 704 pag, ISBN 0070107513 ISBN 978-0070107519
  4. ^ Ladislao Reti, "Francesco di Giorgio Martini's Treatise on Engineering and Its Plagiarists", Technology and Culture, Vol. 4, No. 3. (Summer, 1963), pp. 287–298 (297f.)
  5. ^ Hart-Davis, Adam (3 April 2017). Engineers. Dorling Kindersley Limited. ISBN 9781409322245 – via Google Books.
  6. ^ Science & Society Picture Library Image of Valoué's design
  7. ^ Pile-driver Information on Gazzola's design
  8. ^ Leonardo da Vinci — Pile Driver Information at Italy's National Museum of Science and Technology
  9. ^ History Trails: Ancient Crannogs from BBC's Mysterious Ancestors series
  10. ^ Fleming, Ken; Weltman, Austin; Randolph, Mark; Elson, Keith (25 September 2008). Piling Engineering, Third Edition. CRC Press. ISBN 9780203937648 – via Google Books.
  11. ^ Hevesi, Dennis (July 3, 2008). "R. C. Seamans Jr., NASA Figure, Dies at 89". New York Times. Retrieved 2008-07-03.
  12. ^ a b c Pile Foundation: Design and Construction. Satyender Mittal (2017) 296 pag. ISBN 9386478374, ISBN 978-9386478375
  13. ^ Halvorsen, M. B., Casper, B. M., Woodley, C. M., Carlson, T. J., & Popper, A. N. (2012). Threshold for onset of injury in Chinook salmon from exposure to impulsive pile driving sounds. PLoS ONE, 7(6), e38968.
  14. ^ Halvorsen, M. B., Casper, B. M., Matthews, F., Carlson, T. J., & Popper, A. N. (2012). Effects of exposure to pile-driving sounds on the lake sturgeon, Nile tilapia and hogchoker. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 279(1748), 4705-4714.
  15. ^ "Fisheries – Bioacoustics". Caltrans. Retrieved 2011-02-03.
  16. ^ "Noise mitigation for the construction of increasingly large offshore wind turbines" (PDF). Federal Agency for Nature Conservation. November 2018.
[edit]
  • Website about Vulcan Iron Works, which produced pile drivers from the 1870s through the 1990s

 

Cement powder in a bag, ready to be mixed with aggregates and water.[1]
Cement block construction examples from the Multiplex Manufacturing Company of Toledo, Ohio, in 1905

A cement is a binder, a chemical substance used for construction that sets, hardens, and adheres to other materials to bind them together. Cement is seldom used on its own, but rather to bind sand and gravel (aggregate) together. Cement mixed with fine aggregate produces mortar for masonry, or with sand and gravel, produces concrete. Concrete is the most widely used material in existence and is behind only water as the planet's most-consumed resource.[2]

Cements used in construction are usually inorganic, often lime- or calcium silicate-based, and are either hydraulic or less commonly non-hydraulic, depending on the ability of the cement to set in the presence of water (see hydraulic and non-hydraulic lime plaster).

Hydraulic cements (e.g., Portland cement) set and become adhesive through a chemical reaction between the dry ingredients and water. The chemical reaction results in mineral hydrates that are not very water-soluble. This allows setting in wet conditions or under water and further protects the hardened material from chemical attack. The chemical process for hydraulic cement was found by ancient Romans who used volcanic ash (pozzolana) with added lime (calcium oxide).

Non-hydraulic cement (less common) does not set in wet conditions or under water. Rather, it sets as it dries and reacts with carbon dioxide in the air. It is resistant to attack by chemicals after setting.

The word "cement" can be traced back to the Ancient Roman term opus caementicium, used to describe masonry resembling modern concrete that was made from crushed rock with burnt lime as binder.[3] The volcanic ash and pulverized brick supplements that were added to the burnt lime, to obtain a hydraulic binder, were later referred to as cementum, cimentum, cäment, and cement. In modern times, organic polymers are sometimes used as cements in concrete.

World production of cement is about 4.4 billion tonnes per year (2021, estimation),[4][5] of which about half is made in China, followed by India and Vietnam.[4][6]

The cement production process is responsible for nearly 8% (2018) of global CO2 emissions,[5] which includes heating raw materials in a cement kiln by fuel combustion and release of CO2 stored in the calcium carbonate (calcination process). Its hydrated products, such as concrete, gradually reabsorb atmospheric CO2 (carbonation process), compensating for approximately 30% of the initial CO2 emissions.[7]

Chemistry

[edit]

Cement materials can be classified into two distinct categories: hydraulic cements and non-hydraulic cements according to their respective setting and hardening mechanisms. Hydraulic cement setting and hardening involves hydration reactions and therefore requires water, while non-hydraulic cements only react with a gas and can directly set under air.

Hydraulic cement

[edit]
Clinker nodules produced by sintering at 1450 °C

By far the most common type of cement is hydraulic cement, which hardens by hydration (when water is added) of the clinker minerals. Hydraulic cements (such as Portland cement) are made of a mixture of silicates and oxides, the four main mineral phases of the clinker, abbreviated in the cement chemist notation, being:

C3S: alite (3CaO·SiO2);
C2S: belite (2CaO·SiO2);
C3A: tricalcium aluminate (3CaO·Al2O3) (historically, and still occasionally, called celite);
C4AF: brownmillerite (4CaO·Al2O3·Fe2O3).

The silicates are responsible for the cement's mechanical properties — the tricalcium aluminate and brownmillerite are essential for the formation of the liquid phase during the sintering (firing) process of clinker at high temperature in the kiln. The chemistry of these reactions is not completely clear and is still the object of research.[8]

First, the limestone (calcium carbonate) is burned to remove its carbon, producing lime (calcium oxide) in what is known as a calcination reaction. This single chemical reaction is a major emitter of global carbon dioxide emissions.[9]

The lime reacts with silicon dioxide to produce dicalcium silicate and tricalcium silicate.

The lime also reacts with aluminium oxide to form tricalcium aluminate.

In the last step, calcium oxide, aluminium oxide, and ferric oxide react together to form brownmillerite.

Non-hydraulic cement

[edit]
Calcium oxide obtained by thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate at high temperature (above 825 °C).

A less common form of cement is non-hydraulic cement, such as slaked lime (calcium oxide mixed with water), which hardens by carbonation in contact with carbon dioxide, which is present in the air (~ 412 vol. ppm ≃ 0.04 vol. %). First calcium oxide (lime) is produced from calcium carbonate (limestone or chalk) by calcination at temperatures above 825 °C (1,517 °F) for about 10 hours at atmospheric pressure:

The calcium oxide is then spent (slaked) by mixing it with water to make slaked lime (calcium hydroxide):

Once the excess water is completely evaporated (this process is technically called setting), the carbonation starts:

This reaction is slow, because the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the air is low (~ 0.4 millibar). The carbonation reaction requires that the dry cement be exposed to air, so the slaked lime is a non-hydraulic cement and cannot be used under water. This process is called the lime cycle.

History

[edit]

Perhaps the earliest known occurrence of cement is from twelve million years ago. A deposit of cement was formed after an occurrence of oil shale located adjacent to a bed of limestone burned by natural causes. These ancient deposits were investigated in the 1960s and 1970s.[10]

Alternatives to cement used in antiquity

[edit]

Cement, chemically speaking, is a product that includes lime as the primary binding ingredient, but is far from the first material used for cementation. The Babylonians and Assyrians used bitumen (asphalt or pitch) to bind together burnt brick or alabaster slabs. In Ancient Egypt, stone blocks were cemented together with a mortar made of sand and roughly burnt gypsum (CaSO4 · 2H2O), which is plaster of Paris, which often contained calcium carbonate (CaCO3),[11]

Ancient Greece and Rome

[edit]

Lime (calcium oxide) was used on Crete and by the Ancient Greeks. There is evidence that the Minoans of Crete used crushed potsherds as an artificial pozzolan for hydraulic cement.[11] Nobody knows who first discovered that a combination of hydrated non-hydraulic lime and a pozzolan produces a hydraulic mixture (see also: Pozzolanic reaction), but such concrete was used by the Greeks, specifically the Ancient Macedonians,[12][13] and three centuries later on a large scale by Roman engineers.[14][15][16]

There is... a kind of powder which from natural causes produces astonishing results. It is found in the neighborhood of Baiae and in the country belonging to the towns round about Mount Vesuvius. This substance when mixed with lime and rubble not only lends strength to buildings of other kinds but even when piers of it are constructed in the sea, they set hard underwater.

— Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, Liber II, De Architectura, Chapter VI "Pozzolana" Sec. 1

The Greeks used volcanic tuff from the island of Thera as their pozzolan and the Romans used crushed volcanic ash (activated aluminium silicates) with lime. This mixture could set under water, increasing its resistance to corrosion like rust.[17] The material was called pozzolana from the town of Pozzuoli, west of Naples where volcanic ash was extracted.[18] In the absence of pozzolanic ash, the Romans used powdered brick or pottery as a substitute and they may have used crushed tiles for this purpose before discovering natural sources near Rome.[11] The huge dome of the Pantheon in Rome and the massive Baths of Caracalla are examples of ancient structures made from these concretes, many of which still stand.[19][2] The vast system of Roman aqueducts also made extensive use of hydraulic cement.[20] Roman concrete was rarely used on the outside of buildings. The normal technique was to use brick facing material as the formwork for an infill of mortar mixed with an aggregate of broken pieces of stone, brick, potsherds, recycled chunks of concrete, or other building rubble.[21]

Mesoamerica

[edit]

Lightweight concrete was designed and used for the construction of structural elements by the pre-Columbian builders who lived in a very advanced civilisation in El Tajin near Mexico City, in Mexico. A detailed study of the composition of the aggregate and binder show that the aggregate was pumice and the binder was a pozzolanic cement made with volcanic ash and lime.[22]

Middle Ages

[edit]

Any preservation of this knowledge in literature from the Middle Ages is unknown, but medieval masons and some military engineers actively used hydraulic cement in structures such as canals, fortresses, harbors, and shipbuilding facilities.[23][24] A mixture of lime mortar and aggregate with brick or stone facing material was used in the Eastern Roman Empire as well as in the West into the Gothic period. The German Rhineland continued to use hydraulic mortar throughout the Middle Ages, having local pozzolana deposits called trass.[21]

16th century

[edit]

Tabby is a building material made from oyster shell lime, sand, and whole oyster shells to form a concrete. The Spanish introduced it to the Americas in the sixteenth century.[25]

18th century

[edit]

The technical knowledge for making hydraulic cement was formalized by French and British engineers in the 18th century.[23]

John Smeaton made an important contribution to the development of cements while planning the construction of the third Eddystone Lighthouse (1755–59) in the English Channel now known as Smeaton's Tower. He needed a hydraulic mortar that would set and develop some strength in the twelve-hour period between successive high tides. He performed experiments with combinations of different limestones and additives including trass and pozzolanas[11] and did exhaustive market research on the available hydraulic limes, visiting their production sites, and noted that the "hydraulicity" of the lime was directly related to the clay content of the limestone used to make it. Smeaton was a civil engineer by profession, and took the idea no further.

In the South Atlantic seaboard of the United States, tabby relying on the oyster-shell middens of earlier Native American populations was used in house construction from the 1730s to the 1860s.[25]

In Britain particularly, good quality building stone became ever more expensive during a period of rapid growth, and it became a common practice to construct prestige buildings from the new industrial bricks, and to finish them with a stucco to imitate stone. Hydraulic limes were favored for this, but the need for a fast set time encouraged the development of new cements. Most famous was Parker's "Roman cement".[26] This was developed by James Parker in the 1780s, and finally patented in 1796. It was, in fact, nothing like material used by the Romans, but was a "natural cement" made by burning septaria – nodules that are found in certain clay deposits, and that contain both clay minerals and calcium carbonate. The burnt nodules were ground to a fine powder. This product, made into a mortar with sand, set in 5–15 minutes. The success of "Roman cement" led other manufacturers to develop rival products by burning artificial hydraulic lime cements of clay and chalk. Roman cement quickly became popular but was largely replaced by Portland cement in the 1850s.[11]

19th century

[edit]

Apparently unaware of Smeaton's work, the same principle was identified by Frenchman Louis Vicat in the first decade of the nineteenth century. Vicat went on to devise a method of combining chalk and clay into an intimate mixture, and, burning this, produced an "artificial cement" in 1817[27] considered the "principal forerunner"[11] of Portland cement and "...Edgar Dobbs of Southwark patented a cement of this kind in 1811."[11]

In Russia, Egor Cheliev created a new binder by mixing lime and clay. His results were published in 1822 in his book A Treatise on the Art to Prepare a Good Mortar published in St. Petersburg. A few years later in 1825, he published another book, which described various methods of making cement and concrete, and the benefits of cement in the construction of buildings and embankments.[28][29]

William Aspdin is considered the inventor of "modern" Portland cement.[30]

Portland cement, the most common type of cement in general use around the world as a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar, stucco, and non-speciality grout, was developed in England in the mid 19th century, and usually originates from limestone. James Frost produced what he called "British cement" in a similar manner around the same time, but did not obtain a patent until 1822.[31] In 1824, Joseph Aspdin patented a similar material, which he called Portland cement, because the render made from it was in color similar to the prestigious Portland stone quarried on the Isle of Portland, Dorset, England. However, Aspdins' cement was nothing like modern Portland cement but was a first step in its development, called a proto-Portland cement.[11] Joseph Aspdins' son William Aspdin had left his father's company and in his cement manufacturing apparently accidentally produced calcium silicates in the 1840s, a middle step in the development of Portland cement. William Aspdin's innovation was counterintuitive for manufacturers of "artificial cements", because they required more lime in the mix (a problem for his father), a much higher kiln temperature (and therefore more fuel), and the resulting clinker was very hard and rapidly wore down the millstones, which were the only available grinding technology of the time. Manufacturing costs were therefore considerably higher, but the product set reasonably slowly and developed strength quickly, thus opening up a market for use in concrete. The use of concrete in construction grew rapidly from 1850 onward, and was soon the dominant use for cements. Thus Portland cement began its predominant role. Isaac Charles Johnson further refined the production of meso-Portland cement (middle stage of development) and claimed he was the real father of Portland cement.[32]

Setting time and "early strength" are important characteristics of cements. Hydraulic limes, "natural" cements, and "artificial" cements all rely on their belite (2 CaO · SiO2, abbreviated as C2S) content for strength development. Belite develops strength slowly. Because they were burned at temperatures below 1,250 °C (2,280 °F), they contained no alite (3 CaO · SiO2, abbreviated as C3S), which is responsible for early strength in modern cements. The first cement to consistently contain alite was made by William Aspdin in the early 1840s: This was what we call today "modern" Portland cement. Because of the air of mystery with which William Aspdin surrounded his product, others (e.g., Vicat and Johnson) have claimed precedence in this invention, but recent analysis[33] of both his concrete and raw cement have shown that William Aspdin's product made at Northfleet, Kent was a true alite-based cement. However, Aspdin's methods were "rule-of-thumb": Vicat is responsible for establishing the chemical basis of these cements, and Johnson established the importance of sintering the mix in the kiln.

In the US the first large-scale use of cement was Rosendale cement, a natural cement mined from a massive deposit of dolomite discovered in the early 19th century near Rosendale, New York. Rosendale cement was extremely popular for the foundation of buildings (e.g., Statue of Liberty, Capitol Building, Brooklyn Bridge) and lining water pipes.[34] Sorel cement, or magnesia-based cement, was patented in 1867 by the Frenchman Stanislas Sorel.[35] It was stronger than Portland cement but its poor water resistance (leaching) and corrosive properties (pitting corrosion due to the presence of leachable chloride anions and the low pH (8.5–9.5) of its pore water) limited its use as reinforced concrete for building construction.[36]

The next development in the manufacture of Portland cement was the introduction of the rotary kiln. It produced a clinker mixture that was both stronger, because more alite (C3S) is formed at the higher temperature it achieved (1450 °C), and more homogeneous. Because raw material is constantly fed into a rotary kiln, it allowed a continuous manufacturing process to replace lower capacity batch production processes.[11]

20th century

[edit]
The National Cement Share Company of Ethiopia's new plant in Dire Dawa

Calcium aluminate cements were patented in 1908 in France by Jules Bied for better resistance to sulfates.[37] Also in 1908, Thomas Edison experimented with pre-cast concrete in houses in Union, N.J.[38]

In the US, after World War One, the long curing time of at least a month for Rosendale cement made it unpopular for constructing highways and bridges, and many states and construction firms turned to Portland cement. Because of the switch to Portland cement, by the end of the 1920s only one of the 15 Rosendale cement companies had survived. But in the early 1930s, builders discovered that, while Portland cement set faster, it was not as durable, especially for highways—to the point that some states stopped building highways and roads with cement. Bertrain H. Wait, an engineer whose company had helped construct the New York City's Catskill Aqueduct, was impressed with the durability of Rosendale cement, and came up with a blend of both Rosendale and Portland cements that had the good attributes of both. It was highly durable and had a much faster setting time. Wait convinced the New York Commissioner of Highways to construct an experimental section of highway near New Paltz, New York, using one sack of Rosendale to six sacks of Portland cement. It was a success, and for decades the Rosendale-Portland cement blend was used in concrete highway and concrete bridge construction.[34]

Cementitious materials have been used as a nuclear waste immobilizing matrix for more than a half-century.[39] Technologies of waste cementation have been developed and deployed at industrial scale in many countries. Cementitious wasteforms require a careful selection and design process adapted to each specific type of waste to satisfy the strict waste acceptance criteria for long-term storage and disposal.[40]

Types

[edit]
Components of cement:
comparison of chemical and physical characteristics[a][41][42][43]
Property Portland
cement
Siliceous[b]
fly ash
Calcareous[c]
fly ash
Slag
cement
Silica
fume
Proportion by mass (%)
SiO2 21.9 52 35 35 85–97
Al2O3 6.9 23 18 12
Fe2O3 3 11 6 1
CaO 63 5 21 40 < 1
MgO 2.5
SO3 1.7
Specific surface (m2/kg)[d] 370 420 420 400 15,000
– 30,000
Specific gravity 3.15 2.38 2.65 2.94 2.22
General purpose Primary binder Cement replacement Cement replacement Cement replacement Property enhancer
  1. ^ Values shown are approximate: those of a specific material may vary.
  2. ^ ASTM C618 Class F
  3. ^ ASTM C618 Class C
  4. ^ Specific surface measurements for silica fume by nitrogen adsorption (BET) method, others by air permeability method (Blaine).

Modern development of hydraulic cement began with the start of the Industrial Revolution (around 1800), driven by three main needs:

  • Hydraulic cement render (stucco) for finishing brick buildings in wet climates
  • Hydraulic mortars for masonry construction of harbor works, etc., in contact with sea water
  • Development of strong concretes

Modern cements are often Portland cement or Portland cement blends, but other cement blends are used in some industrial settings.

Portland cement

[edit]

Portland cement, a form of hydraulic cement, is by far the most common type of cement in general use around the world. This cement is made by heating limestone (calcium carbonate) with other materials (such as clay) to 1,450 °C (2,640 °F) in a kiln, in a process known as calcination that liberates a molecule of carbon dioxide from the calcium carbonate to form calcium oxide, or quicklime, which then chemically combines with the other materials in the mix to form calcium silicates and other cementitious compounds. The resulting hard substance, called 'clinker', is then ground with a small amount of gypsum ( CaSO4·2H2O) into a powder to make ordinary Portland cement, the most commonly used type of cement (often referred to as OPC). Portland cement is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar, and most non-specialty grout. The most common use for Portland cement is to make concrete. Portland cement may be grey or white.

Portland cement blend

[edit]

Portland cement blends are often available as inter-ground mixtures from cement producers, but similar formulations are often also mixed from the ground components at the concrete mixing plant.

Portland blast-furnace slag cement, or blast furnace cement (ASTM C595 and EN 197-1 nomenclature respectively), contains up to 95% ground granulated blast furnace slag, with the rest Portland clinker and a little gypsum. All compositions produce high ultimate strength, but as slag content is increased, early strength is reduced, while sulfate resistance increases and heat evolution diminishes. Used as an economic alternative to Portland sulfate-resisting and low-heat cements.

Portland-fly ash cement contains up to 40% fly ash under ASTM standards (ASTM C595), or 35% under EN standards (EN 197–1). The fly ash is pozzolanic, so that ultimate strength is maintained. Because fly ash addition allows a lower concrete water content, early strength can also be maintained. Where good quality cheap fly ash is available, this can be an economic alternative to ordinary Portland cement.[44]

Portland pozzolan cement includes fly ash cement, since fly ash is a pozzolan, but also includes cements made from other natural or artificial pozzolans. In countries where volcanic ashes are available (e.g., Italy, Chile, Mexico, the Philippines), these cements are often the most common form in use. The maximum replacement ratios are generally defined as for Portland-fly ash cement.

Portland silica fume cement. Addition of silica fume can yield exceptionally high strengths, and cements containing 5–20% silica fume are occasionally produced, with 10% being the maximum allowed addition under EN 197–1. However, silica fume is more usually added to Portland cement at the concrete mixer.[45]

Masonry cements are used for preparing bricklaying mortars and stuccos, and must not be used in concrete. They are usually complex proprietary formulations containing Portland clinker and a number of other ingredients that may include limestone, hydrated lime, air entrainers, retarders, waterproofers, and coloring agents. They are formulated to yield workable mortars that allow rapid and consistent masonry work. Subtle variations of masonry cement in North America are plastic cements and stucco cements. These are designed to produce a controlled bond with masonry blocks.

Expansive cements contain, in addition to Portland clinker, expansive clinkers (usually sulfoaluminate clinkers), and are designed to offset the effects of drying shrinkage normally encountered in hydraulic cements. This cement can make concrete for floor slabs (up to 60 m square) without contraction joints.

White blended cements may be made using white clinker (containing little or no iron) and white supplementary materials such as high-purity metakaolin. Colored cements serve decorative purposes. Some standards allow the addition of pigments to produce colored Portland cement. Other standards (e.g., ASTM) do not allow pigments in Portland cement, and colored cements are sold as blended hydraulic cements.

Very finely ground cements are cement mixed with sand or with slag or other pozzolan type minerals that are extremely finely ground together. Such cements can have the same physical characteristics as normal cement but with 50% less cement, particularly because there is more surface area for the chemical reaction. Even with intensive grinding they can use up to 50% less energy (and thus less carbon emissions) to fabricate than ordinary Portland cements.[46]

Other

[edit]

Pozzolan-lime cements are mixtures of ground pozzolan and lime. These are the cements the Romans used, and are present in surviving Roman structures like the Pantheon in Rome. They develop strength slowly, but their ultimate strength can be very high. The hydration products that produce strength are essentially the same as those in Portland cement.

Slag-lime cements—ground granulated blast-furnace slag—are not hydraulic on their own, but are "activated" by addition of alkalis, most economically using lime. They are similar to pozzolan lime cements in their properties. Only granulated slag (i.e., water-quenched, glassy slag) is effective as a cement component.

Supersulfated cements contain about 80% ground granulated blast furnace slag, 15% gypsum or anhydrite and a little Portland clinker or lime as an activator. They produce strength by formation of ettringite, with strength growth similar to a slow Portland cement. They exhibit good resistance to aggressive agents, including sulfate.

Calcium aluminate cements are hydraulic cements made primarily from limestone and bauxite. The active ingredients are monocalcium aluminate CaAl2O4 (CaO · Al2O3 or CA in cement chemist notation, CCN) and mayenite Ca12Al14O33 (12 CaO · 7 Al2O3, or C12A7 in CCN). Strength forms by hydration to calcium aluminate hydrates. They are well-adapted for use in refractory (high-temperature resistant) concretes, e.g., for furnace linings.

Calcium sulfoaluminate cements are made from clinkers that include ye'elimite (Ca4(AlO2)6SO4 or C4A3S in Cement chemist's notation) as a primary phase. They are used in expansive cements, in ultra-high early strength cements, and in "low-energy" cements. Hydration produces ettringite, and specialized physical properties (such as expansion or rapid reaction) are obtained by adjustment of the availability of calcium and sulfate ions. Their use as a low-energy alternative to Portland cement has been pioneered in China, where several million tonnes per year are produced.[47][48] Energy requirements are lower because of the lower kiln temperatures required for reaction, and the lower amount of limestone (which must be endothermically decarbonated) in the mix. In addition, the lower limestone content and lower fuel consumption leads to a CO
2
emission around half that associated with Portland clinker. However, SO2 emissions are usually significantly higher.

"Natural" cements corresponding to certain cements of the pre-Portland era, are produced by burning argillaceous limestones at moderate temperatures. The level of clay components in the limestone (around 30–35%) is such that large amounts of belite (the low-early strength, high-late strength mineral in Portland cement) are formed without the formation of excessive amounts of free lime. As with any natural material, such cements have highly variable properties.

Geopolymer cements are made from mixtures of water-soluble alkali metal silicates, and aluminosilicate mineral powders such as fly ash and metakaolin.

Polymer cements are made from organic chemicals that polymerise. Producers often use thermoset materials. While they are often significantly more expensive, they can give a water proof material that has useful tensile strength.

Sorel cement is a hard, durable cement made by combining magnesium oxide and a magnesium chloride solution

Fiber mesh cement or fiber reinforced concrete is cement that is made up of fibrous materials like synthetic fibers, glass fibers, natural fibers, and steel fibers. This type of mesh is distributed evenly throughout the wet concrete. The purpose of fiber mesh is to reduce water loss from the concrete as well as enhance its structural integrity.[49] When used in plasters, fiber mesh increases cohesiveness, tensile strength, impact resistance, and to reduce shrinkage; ultimately, the main purpose of these combined properties is to reduce cracking.[50]

Electric cement is proposed to be made by recycling cement from demolition wastes in an electric arc furnace as part of a steelmaking process. The recycled cement is intended to be used to replace part or all of the lime used in steelmaking, resulting in a slag-like material that is similar in mineralogy to Portland cement, eliminating most of the associated carbon emissions.[51]

Setting, hardening and curing

[edit]

Cement starts to set when mixed with water, which causes a series of hydration chemical reactions. The constituents slowly hydrate and the mineral hydrates solidify and harden. The interlocking of the hydrates gives cement its strength. Contrary to popular belief, hydraulic cement does not set by drying out — proper curing requires maintaining the appropriate moisture content necessary for the hydration reactions during the setting and the hardening processes. If hydraulic cements dry out during the curing phase, the resulting product can be insufficiently hydrated and significantly weakened. A minimum temperature of 5 °C is recommended, and no more than 30 °C.[52] The concrete at young age must be protected against water evaporation due to direct insolation, elevated temperature, low relative humidity and wind.

The interfacial transition zone (ITZ) is a region of the cement paste around the aggregate particles in concrete. In the zone, a gradual transition in the microstructural features occurs.[53] This zone can be up to 35 micrometer wide.[54]: 351  Other studies have shown that the width can be up to 50 micrometer. The average content of unreacted clinker phase decreases and porosity decreases towards the aggregate surface. Similarly, the content of ettringite increases in ITZ. [54]: 352 

Safety issues

[edit]

Bags of cement routinely have health and safety warnings printed on them because not only is cement highly alkaline, but the setting process is exothermic. As a result, wet cement is strongly caustic (pH = 13.5) and can easily cause severe skin burns if not promptly washed off with water. Similarly, dry cement powder in contact with mucous membranes can cause severe eye or respiratory irritation. Some trace elements, such as chromium, from impurities naturally present in the raw materials used to produce cement may cause allergic dermatitis.[55] Reducing agents such as ferrous sulfate (FeSO4) are often added to cement to convert the carcinogenic hexavalent chromate (CrO42−) into trivalent chromium (Cr3+), a less toxic chemical species. Cement users need also to wear appropriate gloves and protective clothing.[56]

Cement industry in the world

[edit]
Global cement production (2022)
Global cement production in 2022
Global cement capacity (2022)
Global cement capacity in 2022

In 2010, the world production of hydraulic cement was 3,300 megatonnes (3,600×10^6 short tons). The top three producers were China with 1,800, India with 220, and the United States with 63.5 million tonnes for a total of over half the world total by the world's three most populated states.[57]

For the world capacity to produce cement in 2010, the situation was similar with the top three states (China, India, and the US) accounting for just under half the world total capacity.[58]

Over 2011 and 2012, global consumption continued to climb, rising to 3585 Mt in 2011 and 3736 Mt in 2012, while annual growth rates eased to 8.3% and 4.2%, respectively.

China, representing an increasing share of world cement consumption, remains the main engine of global growth. By 2012, Chinese demand was recorded at 2160 Mt, representing 58% of world consumption. Annual growth rates, which reached 16% in 2010, appear to have softened, slowing to 5–6% over 2011 and 2012, as China's economy targets a more sustainable growth rate.

Outside of China, worldwide consumption climbed by 4.4% to 1462 Mt in 2010, 5% to 1535 Mt in 2011, and finally 2.7% to 1576 Mt in 2012.

Iran is now the 3rd largest cement producer in the world and has increased its output by over 10% from 2008 to 2011.[59] Because of climbing energy costs in Pakistan and other major cement-producing countries, Iran is in a unique position as a trading partner, utilizing its own surplus petroleum to power clinker plants. Now a top producer in the Middle-East, Iran is further increasing its dominant position in local markets and abroad.[60]

The performance in North America and Europe over the 2010–12 period contrasted strikingly with that of China, as the global financial crisis evolved into a sovereign debt crisis for many economies in this region[clarification needed] and recession. Cement consumption levels for this region fell by 1.9% in 2010 to 445 Mt, recovered by 4.9% in 2011, then dipped again by 1.1% in 2012.

The performance in the rest of the world, which includes many emerging economies in Asia, Africa and Latin America and representing some 1020 Mt cement demand in 2010, was positive and more than offset the declines in North America and Europe. Annual consumption growth was recorded at 7.4% in 2010, moderating to 5.1% and 4.3% in 2011 and 2012, respectively.

As at year-end 2012, the global cement industry consisted of 5673 cement production facilities, including both integrated and grinding, of which 3900 were located in China and 1773 in the rest of the world.

Total cement capacity worldwide was recorded at 5245 Mt in 2012, with 2950 Mt located in China and 2295 Mt in the rest of the world.[6]

China

[edit]

"For the past 18 years, China consistently has produced more cement than any other country in the world. [...] (However,) China's cement export peaked in 1994 with 11 million tonnes shipped out and has been in steady decline ever since. Only 5.18 million tonnes were exported out of China in 2002. Offered at $34 a ton, Chinese cement is pricing itself out of the market as Thailand is asking as little as $20 for the same quality."[61]

In 2006, it was estimated that China manufactured 1.235 billion tonnes of cement, which was 44% of the world total cement production.[62] "Demand for cement in China is expected to advance 5.4% annually and exceed 1 billion tonnes in 2008, driven by slowing but healthy growth in construction expenditures. Cement consumed in China will amount to 44% of global demand, and China will remain the world's largest national consumer of cement by a large margin."[63]

In 2010, 3.3 billion tonnes of cement was consumed globally. Of this, China accounted for 1.8 billion tonnes.[64]

Environmental impacts

[edit]

Cement manufacture causes environmental impacts at all stages of the process. These include emissions of airborne pollution in the form of dust, gases, noise and vibration when operating machinery and during blasting in quarries, and damage to countryside from quarrying. Equipment to reduce dust emissions during quarrying and manufacture of cement is widely used, and equipment to trap and separate exhaust gases are coming into increased use. Environmental protection also includes the re-integration of quarries into the countryside after they have been closed down by returning them to nature or re-cultivating them.

CO
2
emissions

[edit]
Global carbon emission by type to 2018
Global carbon emission by type to 2018

Carbon concentration in cement spans from ≈5% in cement structures to ≈8% in the case of roads in cement.[65] Cement manufacturing releases CO2 in the atmosphere both directly when calcium carbonate is heated, producing lime and carbon dioxide,[66][67] and also indirectly through the use of energy if its production involves the emission of CO
2
. The cement industry produces about 10% of global human-made CO
2
emissions, of which 60% is from the chemical process, and 40% from burning fuel.[68] A Chatham House study from 2018 estimates that the 4 billion tonnes of cement produced annually account for 8% of worldwide CO
2
emissions.[5]

Nearly 900 kg of CO
2
are emitted for every 1000 kg of Portland cement produced. In the European Union, the specific energy consumption for the production of cement clinker has been reduced by approximately 30% since the 1970s. This reduction in primary energy requirements is equivalent to approximately 11 million tonnes of coal per year with corresponding benefits in reduction of CO
2
emissions. This accounts for approximately 5% of anthropogenic CO
2
.[69]

The majority of carbon dioxide emissions in the manufacture of Portland cement (approximately 60%) are produced from the chemical decomposition of limestone to lime, an ingredient in Portland cement clinker. These emissions may be reduced by lowering the clinker content of cement. They can also be reduced by alternative fabrication methods such as the intergrinding cement with sand or with slag or other pozzolan type minerals to a very fine powder.[70]

To reduce the transport of heavier raw materials and to minimize the associated costs, it is more economical to build cement plants closer to the limestone quarries rather than to the consumer centers.[71]

As of 2019 carbon capture and storage is about to be trialed, but its financial viability is uncertain.[72]

CO
2
absorption

[edit]

Hydrated products of Portland cement, such as concrete and mortars, slowly reabsorb atmospheric CO2 gas, which has been released during calcination in a kiln. This natural process, reversed to calcination, is called carbonation.[73] As it depends on CO2 diffusion into the bulk of concrete, its rate depends on many parameters, such as environmental conditions and surface area exposed to the atmosphere.[74][75] Carbonation is particularly significant at the latter stages of the concrete life - after demolition and crushing of the debris. It was estimated that during the whole life-cycle of cement products, it can be reabsorbed nearly 30% of atmospheric CO2 generated by cement production.[75]

Carbonation process is considered as a mechanism of concrete degradation. It reduces pH of concrete that promotes reinforcement steel corrosion.[73] However, as the product of Ca(OH)2 carbonation, CaCO3, occupies a greater volume, porosity of concrete reduces. This increases strength and hardness of concrete.[76]

There are proposals to reduce carbon footprint of hydraulic cement by adopting non-hydraulic cement, lime mortar, for certain applications. It reabsorbs some of the CO
2
during hardening, and has a lower energy requirement in production than Portland cement.[77]

A few other attempts to increase absorption of carbon dioxide include cements based on magnesium (Sorel cement).[78][79][80]

Heavy metal emissions in the air

[edit]

In some circumstances, mainly depending on the origin and the composition of the raw materials used, the high-temperature calcination process of limestone and clay minerals can release in the atmosphere gases and dust rich in volatile heavy metals, e.g. thallium,[81] cadmium and mercury are the most toxic. Heavy metals (Tl, Cd, Hg, ...) and also selenium are often found as trace elements in common metal sulfides (pyrite (FeS2), zinc blende (ZnS), galena (PbS), ...) present as secondary minerals in most of the raw materials. Environmental regulations exist in many countries to limit these emissions. As of 2011 in the United States, cement kilns are "legally allowed to pump more toxins into the air than are hazardous-waste incinerators."[82]

Heavy metals present in the clinker

[edit]

The presence of heavy metals in the clinker arises both from the natural raw materials and from the use of recycled by-products or alternative fuels. The high pH prevailing in the cement porewater (12.5 < pH < 13.5) limits the mobility of many heavy metals by decreasing their solubility and increasing their sorption onto the cement mineral phases. Nickel, zinc and lead are commonly found in cement in non-negligible concentrations. Chromium may also directly arise as natural impurity from the raw materials or as secondary contamination from the abrasion of hard chromium steel alloys used in the ball mills when the clinker is ground. As chromate (CrO42−) is toxic and may cause severe skin allergies at trace concentration, it is sometimes reduced into trivalent Cr(III) by addition of ferrous sulfate (FeSO4).

Use of alternative fuels and by-products materials

[edit]

A cement plant consumes 3 to 6 GJ of fuel per tonne of clinker produced, depending on the raw materials and the process used. Most cement kilns today use coal and petroleum coke as primary fuels, and to a lesser extent natural gas and fuel oil. Selected waste and by-products with recoverable calorific value can be used as fuels in a cement kiln (referred to as co-processing), replacing a portion of conventional fossil fuels, like coal, if they meet strict specifications. Selected waste and by-products containing useful minerals such as calcium, silica, alumina, and iron can be used as raw materials in the kiln, replacing raw materials such as clay, shale, and limestone. Because some materials have both useful mineral content and recoverable calorific value, the distinction between alternative fuels and raw materials is not always clear. For example, sewage sludge has a low but significant calorific value, and burns to give ash containing minerals useful in the clinker matrix.[83] Scrap automobile and truck tires are useful in cement manufacturing as they have high calorific value and the iron embedded in tires is useful as a feed stock.[84]: p. 27 

Clinker is manufactured by heating raw materials inside the main burner of a kiln to a temperature of 1,450 °C. The flame reaches temperatures of 1,800 °C. The material remains at 1,200 °C for 12–15 seconds at 1,800 °C or sometimes for 5–8 seconds (also referred to as residence time). These characteristics of a clinker kiln offer numerous benefits and they ensure a complete destruction of organic compounds, a total neutralization of acid gases, sulphur oxides and hydrogen chloride. Furthermore, heavy metal traces are embedded in the clinker structure and no by-products, such as ash or residues, are produced.[85]

The EU cement industry already uses more than 40% fuels derived from waste and biomass in supplying the thermal energy to the grey clinker making process. Although the choice for this so-called alternative fuels (AF) is typically cost driven, other factors are becoming more important. Use of alternative fuels provides benefits for both society and the company: CO
2
-emissions are lower than with fossil fuels, waste can be co-processed in an efficient and sustainable manner and the demand for certain virgin materials can be reduced. Yet there are large differences in the share of alternative fuels used between the European Union (EU) member states. The societal benefits could be improved if more member states increase their alternative fuels share. The Ecofys study[86] assessed the barriers and opportunities for further uptake of alternative fuels in 14 EU member states. The Ecofys study found that local factors constrain the market potential to a much larger extent than the technical and economic feasibility of the cement industry itself.

Reduced-footprint cement

[edit]

Growing environmental concerns and the increasing cost of fossil fuels have resulted, in many countries, in a sharp reduction of the resources needed to produce cement, as well as effluents (dust and exhaust gases).[87] Reduced-footprint cement is a cementitious material that meets or exceeds the functional performance capabilities of Portland cement. Various techniques are under development. One is geopolymer cement, which incorporates recycled materials, thereby reducing consumption of raw materials, water, and energy. Another approach is to reduce or eliminate the production and release of damaging pollutants and greenhouse gasses, particularly CO
2
.[88] Recycling old cement in electric arc furnaces is another approach.[89] Also, a team at the University of Edinburgh has developed the 'DUPE' process based on the microbial activity of Sporosarcina pasteurii, a bacterium precipitating calcium carbonate, which, when mixed with sand and urine, can produce mortar blocks with a compressive strength 70% of that of concrete.[90] An overview of climate-friendly methods for cement production can be found here.[91]

See also

[edit]
  • Asphalt concrete
  • Calcium aluminate cements
  • Cement chemist notation
  • Cement render
  • Cenocell
  • Energetically modified cement (EMC)
  • Fly ash
  • Geopolymer cement
  • Portland cement
  • Rosendale cement
  • Sulfate attack in concrete and mortar
  • Sulfur concrete
  • Tiocem
  • List of countries by cement production

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Draeger: Guide for selection and use of filtering devices" (PDF). Draeger. 22 May 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 May 2020. Retrieved 22 May 2020.
  2. ^ a b Rodgers, Lucy (17 December 2018). "The massive CO
    2
    emitter you may not know about". BBC News. Retrieved 17 December 2018.
  3. ^ Cement Analyst, Milan A (2015), Lancaster, Lynne C. (ed.), "Opus Caementicium", Innovative Vaulting in the Architecture of the Roman Empire: 1st to 4th Centuries CE, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 19–38, ISBN 978-1-107-05935-1, retrieved 7 March 2025
  4. ^ a b "Cement" (PDF). United States Geological Survey (USGS). Retrieved 26 September 2023.
  5. ^ a b c "Making Concrete Change: Innovation in Low-carbon Cement and Concrete". Chatham House. 13 June 2018. Archived from the original on 19 December 2018. Retrieved 17 December 2018.
  6. ^ a b Hargreaves, David (March 2013). "The Global Cement Report 10th Edition" (PDF). International Cement Review. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 November 2013.
  7. ^ Cao, Zhi; Myers, Rupert J.; Lupton, Richard C.; Duan, Huabo; Sacchi, Romain; Zhou, Nan; Reed Miller, T.; Cullen, Jonathan M.; Ge, Quansheng; Liu, Gang (29 July 2020). "The sponge effect and carbon emission mitigation potentials of the global cement cycle". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 3777. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.3777C. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-17583-w. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 7392754. PMID 32728073.
  8. ^ "Cement's basic molecular structure finally decoded (MIT, 2009)". Archived from the original on 21 February 2013.
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  12. ^ Brabant, Malcolm (12 April 2011). Macedonians created cement three centuries before the Romans Archived 9 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine, BBC News.
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  28. ^ Znachko-Iavorskii; I. L. (1969). Egor Gerasimovich Chelidze, izobretatelʹ tsementa. Sabchota Sakartvelo. Archived from the original on 1 February 2014.
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  32. ^ Hahn, Thomas F. and Kemp, Emory Leland (1994). Cement mills along the Potomac River. Morgantown, WV: West Virginia University Press. p. 16. ISBN 9781885907004
  33. ^ Hewlett, Peter (2003). Lea's Chemistry of Cement and Concrete. Butterworth-Heinemann. p. Ch. 1. ISBN 978-0-08-053541-8. Archived from the original on 1 November 2015.
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  51. ^ Barnard, Michael (30 May 2024). "Many Green Cement Roads Lead Through Electric Arc Steel Furnaces". CleanTechnica. Retrieved 11 June 2024.
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Further reading

[edit]
  • Taylor, Harry F. W. (1997). Cement Chemistry. Thomas Telford. ISBN 978-0-7277-2592-9.
  • Peter Hewlett; Martin Liska (2019). Lea's Chemistry of Cement and Concrete. Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-08-100795-2.
  • Aitcin, Pierre-Claude (2000). "Cements of yesterday and today: Concrete of tomorrow". Cement and Concrete Research. 30 (9): 1349–1359. doi:10.1016/S0008-8846(00)00365-3.
  • van Oss, Hendrik G.; Padovani, Amy C. (2002). "Cement manufacture and the environment, Part I: Chemistry and Technology". Journal of Industrial Ecology. 6 (1): 89–105. Bibcode:2002JInEc...6...89O. doi:10.1162/108819802320971650. S2CID 96660377.
  • van Oss, Hendrik G.; Padovani, Amy C. (2003). "Cement manufacture and the environment, Part II: Environmental challenges and opportunities" (PDF). Journal of Industrial Ecology. 7 (1): 93–126. Bibcode:2003JInEc...7...93O. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.469.2404. doi:10.1162/108819803766729212. S2CID 44083686. Archived from the original on 22 September 2017. Retrieved 24 October 2017.
  • Deolalkar, S. P. (2016). Designing green cement plants. Amsterdam: Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 9780128034354. OCLC 919920182.
  • Friedrich W. Locher: Cement : Principles of production and use, Düsseldorf, Germany: Verlag Bau + Technik GmbH, 2006, ISBN 3-7640-0420-7
  • Javed I. Bhatty, F. MacGregor Miller, Steven H. Kosmatka; editors: Innovations in Portland Cement Manufacturing, SP400, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Illinois, U.S., 2004, ISBN 0-89312-234-3
  • "Why cement emissions matter for climate change" Archived 21 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine Carbon Brief 2018
  • Neville, A.M. (1996). Properties of concrete. Fourth and final edition standards. Pearson, Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-582-23070-5. OCLC 33837400.
  • Taylor, H.F.W. (1990). Cement chemistry. Academic Press. p. 475. ISBN 978-0-12-683900-5.
  • Ulm, Franz-Josef; Roland J.-M. Pellenq; Akihiro Kushima; Rouzbeh Shahsavari; Krystyn J. Van Vliet; Markus J. Buehler; Sidney Yip (2009). "A realistic molecular model of cement hydrates". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 106 (38): 16102–16107. Bibcode:2009PNAS..10616102P. doi:10.1073/pnas.0902180106. PMC 2739865. PMID 19805265.
[edit]
  • "Cement" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 5 (11th ed.). 1911.

 

Shallow foundation construction example

A shallow foundation is a type of building foundation that transfers structural load to the Earth very near to the surface, rather than to a subsurface layer or a range of depths, as does a deep foundation. Customarily, a shallow foundation is considered as such when the width of the entire foundation is greater than its depth.[1] In comparison to deep foundations, shallow foundations are less technical, thus making them more economical and the most widely used for relatively light structures.

Types

[edit]

Footings are always wider than the members that they support. Structural loads from a column or wall are usually greater than 1,000 kPa, while the soil's bearing capacity is commonly less than that (typically less than 400 kPa). By possessing a larger bearing area, the foundation distributes the pressure to the soil, decreasing the bearing pressure to within allowable values.[2] A structure is not limited to one footing. Multiple types of footings may be used in a construction project.

Wall footing

[edit]

Also called strip footing, a wall footing is a continuous strip that supports structural and non-structural load-bearing walls. Found directly under the wall, Its width is commonly 2-3 times wider than the wall above it.[3]

Detail Section of a strip footing and its wall.

Isolated footing

[edit]

Also called single-column footing, an isolated footing is a square, rectangular, or circular slab that supports the structural members individually. Generally, each column is set on an individual footing to transmit and distribute the load of the structure to the soil underneath. Sometimes, an isolated footing can be sloped or stepped at the base to spread greater loads. This type of footing is used when the structural load is relatively low, columns are widely spaced, and the soil's bearing capacity is adequate at a shallow depth.

Combined footing

[edit]

When more than one column shares the same footing, it is called a combined footing. A combined footing is typically utilized when the spacing of the columns is too restricted such that if isolated footing were used, they would overlap one another. Also, when property lines make isolated footings eccentrically loaded, combined footings are preferred.

When the load among the columns is equal, the combined footing may be rectangular. Conversely, when the load among the columns is unequal, the combined footing should be trapezoidal.

Strap footing

[edit]

A strap footing connects individual columns with the use of a strap beam. The general purpose of a strap footing is alike to those of a combined footing, where the spacing is possibly limited and/or the columns are adjacent to the property lines.

Mat foundation with its concrete undergoing curing.

Mat foundation

[edit]

Also called raft foundation, a mat foundation is a single continuous slab that covers the entirety of the base of a building. Mat foundations support all the loads of the structure and transmit them to the ground evenly. Soil conditions may prevent other footings from being used. Since this type of foundation distributes the load coming from the building uniformly over a considerably large area, it is favored when individual footings are unfeasible due to the low bearing capacity of the soil.

Diagrams of the types of shallow foundations.

Slab-on-grade foundation

[edit]
Pouring a slab-on-grade foundation

Slab-on-grade or floating slab foundations are a structural engineering practice whereby the reinforced concrete slab that is to serve as the foundation for the structure is formed from formwork set into the ground. The concrete is then poured into the formwork, leaving no space between the ground and the structure. This type of construction is most often seen in warmer climates, where ground freezing and thawing is less of a concern and where there is no need for heat ducting underneath the floor. Frost Protected Shallow Foundations (or FPSF) which are used in areas of potential frost heave, are a form of slab-on-grade foundation.[4]

Remodeling or extending such a structure may be more difficult. Over the long term, ground settling (or subsidence) may be a problem, as a slab foundation cannot be readily jacked up to compensate; proper soil compaction prior to pour can minimize this. The slab can be decoupled from ground temperatures by insulation, with the concrete poured directly over insulation (for example, extruded polystyrene foam panels), or heating provisions (such as hydronic heating) can be built into the slab.

Slab-on-grade foundations should not be used in areas with expansive clay soil. While elevated structural slabs actually perform better on expansive clays, it is generally accepted by the engineering community that slab-on-grade foundations offer the greatest cost-to-performance ratio for tract homes. Elevated structural slabs are generally only found on custom homes or homes with basements.

Copper piping, commonly used to carry natural gas and water, reacts with concrete over a long period, slowly degrading until the pipe fails. This can lead to what is commonly referred to as slab leaks. These occur when pipes begin to leak from within the slab. Signs of a slab leak range from unexplained dampened carpet spots, to drops in water pressure and wet discoloration on exterior foundation walls.[5] Copper pipes must be lagged (that is, insulated) or run through a conduit or plumbed into the building above the slab. Electrical conduits through the slab must be water-tight, as they extend below ground level and can potentially expose wiring to groundwater.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Akhter, Shahin. "Shallow foundation – Definition, Types, Uses and Diagrams". Pro Civil Engineer. Retrieved July 31, 2021.
  2. ^ Gillesania, Diego Inocencio T. (2004). Fundamentals of reinforced concrete design (2nd ed.). [Cebu, Cirty, Philippines]. p. 259. ISBN 971-8614-26-5. OCLC 1015901733.cite book: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  3. ^ Mahdi, Sheikh. "8 Most Important Types of Foundation". civiltoday.com. Retrieved July 31, 2021.
  4. ^ "Slab-on-Grade Foundation Detail & Insulation, Building Guide".
  5. ^ "Slab Leak Repair McKinney, Frisco, and Allen Tx - Hackler Plumbing". Hacklerplumbingmckinney.com. 2013-11-08. Retrieved 2018-08-20.
[edit]

Driving Directions in Cook County


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