Routine Maintenance Checks After a Seismic Retrofit

Seismic Retrofit Techniques for Foundation Repair

Visual inspection of the foundation post-retrofit is a crucial step in the routine maintenance checks following a seismic retrofit. The relationship between water and your foundation is like that toxic ex who keeps coming back to cause more damage foundation pier replacement Lake Zurich waterproofing. After a building has undergone the process of being fortified against future earthquakes, its important to ensure that the foundation, which is the bedrock of structural integrity, remains in good condition. This inspection helps to confirm that the retrofitting efforts have not only been implemented correctly but are also holding up over time.


When conducting a visual inspection, one should start by looking for any signs of new or worsening cracks in the foundation. These could indicate movement or settling that might compromise the structural enhancements made during the retrofit. Its also essential to check for any shifts or changes in alignment; even minor misalignments can suggest underlying issues that need immediate attention.


Another aspect to consider is the condition of any added reinforcements like steel plates, bolts, or fiber wraps. These elements should be free from rust, corrosion, or damage since they play a pivotal role in distributing seismic forces evenly across the structure. The inspector should look for any signs of wear or degradation that could weaken these critical components.


Moreover, assessing the area around the foundation for water damage or soil erosion is vital. Water can seep into small cracks and exacerbate them over time, while soil erosion might undermine the support beneath the building. Ensuring proper drainage and observing how water interacts with the foundation can prevent long-term deterioration.


Lastly, documentation plays a key role in this process. Comparing current observations with previous inspection records helps track changes over time, providing insights into whether adjustments or additional repairs are necessary. This ongoing vigilance ensures that the seismic retrofit continues to serve its purpose effectively.


In essence, regular visual inspections post-retrofit are not just about checking boxes; theyre about maintaining peace of mind and ensuring safety by actively monitoring and preserving one of your buildings most fundamental components-the foundation-against future seismic events.

Seismic Retrofit Techniques for Foundation Repair

Lateral Load Considerations in Foundation Stabilization

Monitoring crack development and movement is a critical component of routine maintenance checks following a seismic retrofit. After a building undergoes such significant structural enhancements, its essential to ensure that the retrofitting efforts have effectively improved the buildings resilience against future seismic activities. The process begins with establishing a baseline of the structures condition post-retrofit, which includes mapping out existing cracks and noting any initial signs of stress or movement.


Regular inspections, typically scheduled at intervals ranging from monthly to quarterly depending on the buildings age, location, and seismic risk, focus on observing changes in these cracks. Inspectors look for signs such as widening, lengthening, or new branching off existing cracks. They also pay attention to any shifts in structural elements like beams, columns, or walls that might indicate movement due to settling or residual seismic stress.


The methodology involves both visual inspections and sometimes more sophisticated techniques like laser scanning or digital photogrammetry to capture precise measurements over time. This data is crucial as it helps in distinguishing between normal building settling and potentially harmful shifts that could compromise the integrity of the retrofit.


Documentation plays a pivotal role here; detailed records are kept of each inspection, including photographs, sketches, and measurements. These records allow for trend analysis over time, helping to predict potential issues before they become critical. If significant changes are observed, further engineering analysis might be required to assess whether additional interventions are necessary.


Moreover, this monitoring isnt just about safety; its also about preserving the investment made in the retrofit. By catching and addressing issues early, property owners can avoid more costly repairs down the line. Engaging with professionals who understand both seismic retrofitting and structural monitoring ensures that this maintenance is thorough and effective.


In summary, monitoring crack development and movement after a seismic retrofit is an ongoing commitment to safety and investment protection. It requires diligence, expertise, and a proactive approach to maintain the structural integrity imparted by the retrofit process against future seismic events.

Integrating Seismic and Lateral Load Retrofits with Existing Foundations

Okay, so youve just wrapped up a seismic retrofit on your building. Fantastic! Youve made a huge investment in protecting lives and property. But the job isnt quite done. Think of it like this: youve given your building a super-powered immune system. Now you need to make sure the basic bodily functions are still working properly. And thats where checking the drainage and water management systems comes in.


Why is this important after a retrofit? Well, seismic work can be disruptive. There might have been vibrations, excavations, or even just clumsy boots knocking things around. All of that can potentially impact your drainage. Gutters might have shifted, downspouts could be dented or partially blocked, and underground pipes… well, who knows whats going on down there?


If your drainage isnt working right, youre just inviting trouble. Water pooling near the foundation? Thats a recipe for future structural problems, potentially undermining all that expensive retrofit work you just did. Clogged gutters overflowing onto the siding? Welcome to the world of mold, mildew, and rot. And if your underground drainage is compromised, you could be facing anything from soggy landscaping to serious water damage inside the building.


So, what kind of checks are we talking about? Its mostly common sense stuff. Visually inspect all your gutters and downspouts. Are they securely attached? Are there any obvious dents or blockages? Run water through them to make sure it flows freely. Check the grading around the building foundation. Does the ground slope away from the building? Look for any signs of standing water after a rain. For underground drainage, it might be worth getting a professional to do a camera inspection to make sure everything is clear and intact.


Basically, treat it like a post-surgery checkup for your buildings waterworks. A little preventative maintenance now can save you a whole lot of headaches (and money) down the road. Dont let a minor drainage issue undo all the good work of your seismic retrofit. It's about ensuring the building stays resilient, inside and out.

Integrating Seismic and Lateral Load Retrofits with Existing Foundations

Case Studies of Successful Foundation Retrofit Projects

Okay, so youve just seismic retrofitted a building. Great! Youve made it safer and more resilient. But the job isnt quite done. Think of it like this: after a big surgery, you dont just walk out and run a marathon, right? You need check-ups. Same deal with your building. Routine maintenance checks after seismic work are super important, and a big part of that is assessing the soil conditions and any potential settlement.


Why soil and settlement? Well, retrofitting often involves messing with the foundation – adding new supports, strengthening existing ones, maybe even digging around. All that activity can disturb the soil around the building. Earthquakes, even smaller ones, can then exploit any weaknesses. Were talking about things like soil liquefaction (where the ground turns to mush), compaction (where it squishes down unevenly), or even landslides if youre on a slope. These issues can lead to differential settlement – where one part of the building sinks more than another. And that, my friends, is a recipe for cracks, structural problems, and a whole lot of expensive headaches.


So, what do these routine checks look like? First, you gotta visually inspect the ground around the building. Look for new cracks in the soil, especially near the foundation. Are there any signs of tilting or leaning? Check for changes in landscaping – is the ground pulling away from the building? Next, keep an eye on the building itself. New cracks in walls, floors, or ceilings are a big red flag. Pay special attention to areas near doors and windows, as theyre often the first to show signs of stress.


For a more in-depth assessment, consider getting a geotechnical engineer involved. They can perform soil tests to check for changes in density, moisture content, and stability. They can also use surveying equipment to monitor settlement over time. Think of them as the buildings personal doctor, running tests and monitoring vital signs.


The frequency of these checks depends on a few things: the type of soil, the severity of the retrofit, and the seismic activity in your area. But generally, you should do a thorough inspection soon after the retrofit is completed, then again after any significant earthquake. Regular visual checks should be part of your ongoing building maintenance schedule.


Ultimately, its all about being proactive. Catching soil and settlement issues early can save you a ton of money and prevent serious structural damage down the road. Think of it as an investment in the long-term health and safety of your building. After all, a strong building starts with stable ground.

After a seismic retrofit, one of the critical aspects of routine maintenance checks involves evaluating the anchoring and connection points within a structure. This process is essential to ensure that the enhancements made to improve a buildings resistance to earthquakes are functioning as intended over time. When we talk about seismic retrofits, were referring to modifications that strengthen older buildings or structures not originally designed to withstand modern seismic forces.


The first step in this evaluation is to inspect the anchors-those elements that secure various components of the building to its foundation or frame. These could be bolts, steel plates, or specialized anchoring systems. The purpose here is twofold: checking for any signs of deterioration such as rust, corrosion, or physical damage from environmental factors or minor seismic activities, and verifying that they remain firmly in place without any loosening which might compromise their effectiveness during an earthquake.


Connection points are where different structural elements meet; think of where beams connect to columns or walls join with floors. Over time, these junctions can experience stress that might not be immediately visible but could lead to failure under significant shaking. Routine checks involve looking for cracks, shifts in alignment, or any degradation in materials like concrete or steel at these critical junctures. Sometimes, non-destructive testing methods like ultrasonic testing are employed to look beneath the surface for hidden issues.


During these inspections, its also important to assess whether the retrofitting work has altered load paths in ways that werent initially anticipated. For instance, if additional bracing was added during the retrofit, its crucial to check if this has caused uneven stress distribution elsewhere in the structure. This might require adjustments or further reinforcement.


What makes these evaluations human-like is the blend of technical precision with an intuitive understanding of how buildings behave under stress. Inspectors often rely on their experience; they know what subtle signs might indicate bigger problems down the line. They document everything meticulously because this information becomes part of a historical record that helps predict future maintenance needs.


In essence, evaluating anchoring and connection points post-seismic retrofit isnt just about ticking boxes on a checklist; its about ensuring safety through diligence and foresight. Its about maintaining trust in our built environment by making sure those hidden heroes-the anchors and connections-are doing their job silently but effectively every day until they need to prove themselves in an actual earthquake scenario.

Okay, so youve gone through the whole seismic retrofit process. Good on you! Thats a big step in protecting your property and everyone in it. But the work doesnt just end there. Think of it like getting a tune-up on your car. You dont just drive it and forget about it, right? You need to keep an eye on things, especially after a major overhaul. Thats where routine maintenance checks come in, particularly inspecting those repaired or replaced foundation elements.


Basically, you want to make sure everythings still doing its job. Were talking about looking for cracks, shifts, or any signs of water damage in the foundation areas that were worked on. Remember those epoxy repairs or the new anchor bolts? Are they still holding tight? Are there any new cracks radiating out from the repaired areas?


Now, you dont need to be a structural engineer to do this. A good visual inspection goes a long way. Grab a flashlight, get down low (or maybe hire someone who doesnt mind crawling around in tight spaces), and just take a good look. Are there any new gaps forming between the foundation and the sill plate? Is the soil around the foundation settling unevenly? Are there any signs of moisture where there shouldnt be?


The point is to catch small problems before they become big, expensive ones. Think of it as preventative medicine for your house. Regular inspections, even just twice a year, can help you identify potential issues early on so you can address them before they compromise the integrity of your retrofit. And if you see anything that concerns you, dont hesitate to call in a professional to take a closer look. Peace of mind is worth it, especially after investing in a seismic upgrade. So, keep those foundation elements on your radar!

Okay, so youve just finished a seismic retrofit – fantastic! Youve basically earthquake-proofed your building, which is a huge win. But, like getting a fancy new car, you cant just drive off and forget about it. You need to think about the check-ups, you know, the routine maintenance checks. Thats where the schedule for follow-up inspections comes in. Think of it as your peace-of-mind plan.


Basically, this schedule is a timeline. It lays out when, and how often, youre going to have someone come in and take a good, hard look at all that seismic work. Were talking checking the connections, making sure nothings shifted, and generally confirming that everything is still holding up its end of the bargain.


Why bother? Well, first, it's responsible. Earthquakes, even little tremors, can subtly weaken things over time. Catching those subtle weaknesses early prevents bigger, more expensive problems down the road. Second, think about your investment. You just put a lot of money into this retrofit. A regular inspection schedule is like insurance; it protects that investment and ensures youre getting the full benefit of the work.


The frequency of these checks? That depends. Things like the type of retrofit, the age of the building, and even the local seismic activity all play a role. Your engineer or contractor who did the retrofit should be able to help you create a schedule that makes sense for your specific situation. It might be an inspection every year for the first few years, then maybe dropping down to every few years after that.


The main takeaway is this: dont think of the follow-up inspection schedule as an extra chore or a needless expense. Think of it as an essential part of the retrofit process. It's about protecting your building, protecting your investment, and most importantly, protecting the people inside. Its about ensuring that when the next big one hits, youre truly ready.

Soil mechanics is a branch of soil physics and applied mechanics that describes the behavior of dirts. It varies from fluid mechanics and solid mechanics in the feeling that soils consist of a heterogeneous blend of liquids (usually air and water) and particles (generally clay, silt, sand, and crushed rock) however soil may additionally have natural solids and other matter. Along with rock mechanics, dirt auto mechanics supplies the theoretical basis for evaluation in geotechnical engineering, a subdiscipline of civil design, and engineering geology, a subdiscipline of geology. Dirt auto mechanics is used to analyze the contortions of and flow of fluids within natural and man-made structures that are sustained on or made of dirt, or structures that are buried in dirts. Example applications are building and bridge structures, maintaining walls, dams, and buried pipeline systems. Principles of soil technicians are additionally utilized in associated techniques such as geophysical design, seaside design, farming design, and hydrology. This short article explains the genesis and structure of dirt, the distinction between pore water pressure and inter-granular reliable stress, capillary action of fluids in the dirt pore spaces, soil category, seepage and leaks in the structure, time reliant modification of volume as a result of pressing water out of little pore rooms, likewise called loan consolidation, shear toughness and rigidity of dirts. The shear strength of dirts is mainly derived from rubbing between the particles and interlocking, which are very sensitive to the reliable anxiety. The short article concludes with some instances of applications of the concepts of soil technicians such as incline stability, side earth stress on maintaining wall surfaces, and birthing ability of foundations.

.
A wooden pier in Corfu, Greece

A pier is a raised structure that rises above a body of water and usually juts out from its shore, typically supported by piles or pillars, and provides above-water access to offshore areas. Frequent pier uses include fishing, boat docking and access for both passengers and cargo, and oceanside recreation. Bridges, buildings, and walkways may all be supported by architectural piers. Their open structure allows tides and currents to flow relatively unhindered, whereas the more solid foundations of a quay or the closely spaced piles of a wharf can act as a breakwater, and are consequently more liable to silting. Piers can range in size and complexity from a simple lightweight wooden structure to major structures extended over 1,600 m (5,200 ft). In American English, a pier may be synonymous with a dock.

Piers have been built for several purposes, and because these different purposes have distinct regional variances, the term pier tends to have different nuances of meaning in different parts of the world. Thus in North America and Australia, where many ports were, until recently, built on the multiple pier model, the term tends to imply a current or former cargo-handling facility. In contrast, in Europe, where ports more often use basins and river-side quays than piers, the term is principally associated with the image of a Victorian cast iron pleasure pier which emerged in Great Britain during the early 19th century. However, the earliest piers pre-date the Victorian age.

Types

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Piers can be categorized into different groupings according to the principal purpose.[1] However, there is considerable overlap between these categories. For example, pleasure piers often also allow for the docking of pleasure steamers and other similar craft, while working piers have often been converted to leisure use after being rendered obsolete by advanced developments in cargo-handling technology. Many piers are floating piers, to ensure that the piers raise and lower with the tide along with the boats tied to them. This prevents a situation where lines become overly taut or loose by rising or lowering tides. An overly taut or loose tie-line can damage boats by pulling them out of the water or allowing them so much leeway that they bang forcefully against the sides of the pier.

Working piers

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Out-of-use industrial bulk cargo Pier, Cook Inlet, Alaska.

Working piers were built for the handling of passengers and cargo onto and off ships or (as at Wigan Pier) canal boats. Working piers themselves fall into two different groups. Longer individual piers are often found at ports with large tidal ranges, with the pier stretching far enough off shore to reach deep water at low tide. Such piers provided an economical alternative to impounded docks where cargo volumes were low, or where specialist bulk cargo was handled, such as at coal piers. The other form of working pier, often called the finger pier, was built at ports with smaller tidal ranges. Here the principal advantage was to give a greater available quay length for ships to berth against compared to a linear littoral quayside, and such piers are usually much shorter. Typically each pier would carry a single transit shed the length of the pier, with ships berthing bow or stern in to the shore. Some major ports consisted of large numbers of such piers lining the foreshore, classic examples being the Hudson River frontage of New York, or the Embarcadero in San Francisco.

The advent of container shipping, with its need for large container handling spaces adjacent to the shipping berths, has made working piers obsolete for the handling of general cargo, although some still survive for the handling of passenger ships or bulk cargos. One example, is in use in Progreso, Yucatán, where a pier extends more than 4 miles into the Gulf of Mexico, making it the longest pier in the world. The Progreso Pier supplies much of the peninsula with transportation for the fishing and cargo industries and serves as a port for large cruise ships in the area. Many other working piers have been demolished, or remain derelict, but some have been recycled as pleasure piers. The best known example of this is Pier 39 in San Francisco.

At Southport and the Tweed River on the Gold Coast in Australia, there are piers that support equipment for a sand bypassing system that maintains the health of sandy beaches and navigation channels.

Pleasure piers

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Print of a Victorian pier in Margate in the English county of Kent, 1897

Pleasure piers were first built in Britain during the early 19th century.[2] The earliest structures were Ryde Pier, built in 1813/4, Trinity Chain Pier near Leith, built in 1821, Brighton Chain Pier, built in 1823.[2] and Margate Jetty 1823/24 originally a timber built pier.

Only the oldest of these piers still remains. At that time, the introduction of steamships and railways for the first time permitted mass tourism to dedicated seaside resorts. The large tidal ranges at many such resorts meant that passengers arriving by pleasure steamer could use a pier to disembark safely.[3] Also, for much of the day, the sea was not visible from the shore and the pleasure pier permitted holidaymakers to promenade over and alongside the sea at all times.[4] The world's longest pleasure pier is at Southend-on-Sea, Essex, and extends 1.3 miles (2.1 km) into the Thames Estuary.[2] The longest pier on the West Coast of the US is the Santa Cruz Wharf, with a length of 2,745 feet (837 m).[5]

Providing a walkway out to sea, pleasure piers often include amusements and theatres as part of their attractions.[4] Such a pier may be unroofed, closed, or partly open and partly closed. Sometimes a pier has two decks. Galveston Island Historic Pleasure Pier in Galveston, Texas has a roller coaster, 15 rides, carnival games and souvenir shops.[6]

Early pleasure piers were of complete timber construction, as was with Margate which opened in 1824. The first iron and timber built pleasure pier Margate Jetty, opened in 1855.[7] Margate pier was wrecked by a storm in January 1978 and not repaired.[8][7] The longest iron pleasure pier still remaining is the one at Southend. First opened as a wooden pier in 1829, it was reconstructed in iron and completed in 1889. In a 2006 UK poll, the public voted the seaside pier onto the list of icons of England.[9]

Fishing piers

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Many piers are built for the purpose of providing boatless anglers access to fishing grounds that are otherwise inaccessible.[10] Many "Free Piers" are available in larger harbors which differ from private piers. Free Piers are often primarily used for fishing. Fishing from a pier presents a set of different circumstances to fishing from the shore or beach, as you do not need to cast out into the deeper water. This being the case there are specific fishing rigs that have been created specifically for pier fishing[11] which allow for the direct access to deeper water.

Piers of the world

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Belgium

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In Blankenberge a first pleasure pier was built in 1894. After its destruction in the World War I, a new pier was built in 1933. It remained till the present day, but was partially transformed and modernized in 1999–2004.

In Nieuwpoort, Belgium there is a pleasure pier on both sides of the river IJzer.

Netherlands

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The Scheveningen Pier

Scheveningen, the coastal resort town of The Hague, boasts the largest pier in the Netherlands, completed in 1961. A crane, built on top of the pier's panorama tower, provides the opportunity to make a 60-metre (200 ft) high bungee jump over the North Sea waves. The present pier is a successor of an earlier pier, which was completed in 1901 but in 1943 destroyed by the German occupation forces.

United Kingdom

[edit]

England and Wales

[edit]

The first recorded pier in England was Ryde Pier, opened in 1814 on the Isle of Wight, as a landing stage to allow ferries to and from the mainland to berth. It is still used for this purpose today.[12] It also had a leisure function in the past, with the pier head once containing a pavilion, and there are still refreshment facilities today. The oldest cast iron pier in the world is Town Pier, Gravesend, in Kent, which opened in 1834. However, it is not recognised by the National Piers Society as being a seaside pier.[13]

Brighton Palace Pier (pictured in 2011), opened in 1899

Following the building of the world's first seaside pier at Ryde, the pier became fashionable at seaside resorts in England and Wales during the Victorian era, peaking in the 1860s with 22 being built in that decade.[14] A symbol of the typical British seaside holiday, by 1914, more than 100 pleasure piers were located around the UK coast.[2] Regarded as being among the finest Victorian architecture, there are still a significant number of seaside piers of architectural merit still standing, although some have been lost, including Margate, two at Brighton in East Sussex, one at New Brighton in the Wirral and three at Blackpool in Lancashire.[4] Two piers, Brighton's now derelict West Pier and Clevedon Pier, were Grade 1 listed. The Birnbeck Pier in Weston-super-Mare is the only pier in the world linked to an island. The National Piers Society gives a figure of 55 surviving seaside piers in England and Wales.[1] In 2017, Brighton Palace Pier was said to be the most visited tourist attraction outside London, with over 4.5 million visitors the previous year.[15]

See also

[edit]
  • Boardwalk
  • Breakwater
  • Dock
  • Jetty
  • List of piers
  • Seaside resort
  • Wharf

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b "Piers". National Piers Society. 2006. Archived from the original on September 29, 2008. Retrieved February 24, 2012.
  2. ^ a b c d "The expert selection: British seaside piers". No. 1 August 2014. Financial Times. 15 June 2015. Archived from the original on 2022-12-10.
  3. ^ Gladwell, Andrew (2015). "Introduction". London's Pleasure Steamers. Amberley Publishing. ISBN 978-1445641584.
  4. ^ a b c "A very British affair - the fall and rise of the seaside pier". BBC News. 16 June 2015.
  5. ^ "California Pier Statistics, Longest Piers". seecalifornia.com. Retrieved 2014-02-10.
  6. ^ Aulds, T.J. (January 28, 2012). "Landry's Corp. is close to revealing plans". News Article. Galveston Daily News. Archived from the original on January 31, 2012.
  7. ^ a b "200 years of historic British piers: in pictures". The Telegraph. Retrieved 15 June 2015
  8. ^ "The destruction of Margate jetty in the great storm of January 1978". 13 January 2018.
  9. ^ "ICONS of England - the 100 ICONS as voted by the public". Culture 24 News. 15 June 2015.
  10. ^ "Landscape Design Book" (PDF). University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point. 2013. Retrieved January 6, 2015.[permanent dead link]
  11. ^ VS, Marco (2021-03-21). "Pier Fishing Rigs: 6 Common Types of Rigs for fishing from a Pier". Pro Fishing Reviews. Retrieved 2021-10-10.
  12. ^ "Britain's best seaside piers". The Telegraph. Retrieved 15 June 2015
  13. ^ "The oldest surviving cast iron pier in the world". BBC. February 9, 2006. Retrieved March 26, 2006.
  14. ^ Dobraszczyk, Paul (2014). Iron, Ornament and Architecture in Victorian Britain: Myth and Modernity, Excess and Enchantment. Ashgate Publishing. p. 143. ISBN 978-1-472-41898-2.
  15. ^ "Brighton Palace Pier named as Britain's most visited tourist attraction outside London". Brighton and Hove News. 2 August 2017. Retrieved 23 January 2025.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Turner, K., (1999), Pier Railways and Tramways of the British Isles, The Oakwood Press, No. LP60, ISBN 0-85361-541-1.
  • Wills, Anthony; Phillips, Tim (2014). British Seaside Piers. London: English Heritage. ISBN 9781848022645.
[edit]
  • The Piers Project
  • National Piers Society
  • Details on UK Piers including Webcams

 

Drilling of deep piles of diameter 150 cm in bridge 423 near Ness Ziona, Israel

 

A deep foundation installation for a bridge in Napa, California, United States.
Pile driving operations in the Port of Tampa, Florida.

A pile or piling is a vertical structural element of a deep foundation, driven or drilled deep into the ground at the building site. A deep foundation is a type of foundation that transfers building loads to the earth farther down from the surface than a shallow foundation does to a subsurface layer or a range of depths.

Deep foundations of The Marina Torch, a skyscraper in Dubai

There are many reasons that a geotechnical engineer would recommend a deep foundation over a shallow foundation, such as for a skyscraper. Some of the common reasons are very large design loads, a poor soil at shallow depth, or site constraints like property lines. There are different terms used to describe different types of deep foundations including the pile (which is analogous to a pole), the pier (which is analogous to a column), drilled shafts, and caissons. Piles are generally driven into the ground in situ; other deep foundations are typically put in place using excavation and drilling. The naming conventions may vary between engineering disciplines and firms. Deep foundations can be made out of timber, steel, reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete.

Driven foundations

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Pipe piles being driven into the ground
Illustration of a hand-operated pile driver in Germany after 1480

Prefabricated piles are driven into the ground using a pile driver. Driven piles are constructed of wood, reinforced concrete, or steel. Wooden piles are made from the trunks of tall trees. Concrete piles are available in square, octagonal, and round cross-sections (like Franki piles). They are reinforced with rebar and are often prestressed. Steel piles are either pipe piles or some sort of beam section (like an H-pile). Historically, wood piles used splices to join multiple segments end-to-end when the driven depth required was too long for a single pile; today, splicing is common with steel piles, though concrete piles can be spliced with mechanical and other means. Driving piles, as opposed to drilling shafts, is advantageous because the soil displaced by driving the piles compresses the surrounding soil, causing greater friction against the sides of the piles, thus increasing their load-bearing capacity. Driven piles are also considered to be "tested" for weight-bearing ability because of their method of installation.[citation needed]

Pile foundation systems

[edit]

Foundations relying on driven piles often have groups of piles connected by a pile cap (a large concrete block into which the heads of the piles are embedded) to distribute loads that are greater than one pile can bear. Pile caps and isolated piles are typically connected with grade beams to tie the foundation elements together; lighter structural elements bear on the grade beams, while heavier elements bear directly on the pile cap.[citation needed]

Monopile foundation

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A monopile foundation utilizes a single, generally large-diameter, foundation structural element to support all the loads (weight, wind, etc.) of a large above-surface structure.

A large number of monopile foundations[1] have been utilized in recent years for economically constructing fixed-bottom offshore wind farms in shallow-water subsea locations.[2] For example, the Horns Rev wind farm in the North Sea west of Denmark utilizes 80 large monopiles of 4 metres diameter sunk 25 meters deep into the seabed,[3] while the Lynn and Inner Dowsing Wind Farm off the coast of England went online in 2008 with over 100 turbines, each mounted on a 4.7-metre-diameter monopile foundation in ocean depths up to 18 metres.[4]

The typical construction process for a wind turbine subsea monopile foundation in sand includes driving a large hollow steel pile, of some 4 m in diameter with approximately 50mm thick walls, some 25 m deep into the seabed, through a 0.5 m layer of larger stone and gravel to minimize erosion around the pile. A transition piece (complete with pre-installed features such as boat-landing arrangement, cathodic protection, cable ducts for sub-marine cables, turbine tower flange, etc.) is attached to the driven pile, and the sand and water are removed from the centre of the pile and replaced with concrete. An additional layer of even larger stone, up to 0.5 m diameter, is applied to the surface of the seabed for longer-term erosion protection.[2]

Drilled piles

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A pile machine in Amsterdam.

Also called caissons, drilled shafts, drilled piers, cast-in-drilled-hole piles (CIDH piles) or cast-in-situ piles, a borehole is drilled into the ground, then concrete (and often some sort of reinforcing) is placed into the borehole to form the pile. Rotary boring techniques allow larger diameter piles than any other piling method and permit pile construction through particularly dense or hard strata. Construction methods depend on the geology of the site; in particular, whether boring is to be undertaken in 'dry' ground conditions or through water-saturated strata. Casing is often used when the sides of the borehole are likely to slough off before concrete is poured.

For end-bearing piles, drilling continues until the borehole has extended a sufficient depth (socketing) into a sufficiently strong layer. Depending on site geology, this can be a rock layer, or hardpan, or other dense, strong layers. Both the diameter of the pile and the depth of the pile are highly specific to the ground conditions, loading conditions, and nature of the project. Pile depths may vary substantially across a project if the bearing layer is not level. Drilled piles can be tested using a variety of methods to verify the pile integrity during installation.

Under-reamed piles

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Under-reamed piles have mechanically formed enlarged bases that are as much as 6 m in diameter.[citation needed] The form is that of an inverted cone and can only be formed in stable soils or rocks. The larger base diameter allows greater bearing capacity than a straight-shaft pile.

These piles are suited for expansive soils which are often subjected to seasonal moisture variations, or for loose or soft strata. They are used in normal ground condition also where economics are favorable. [5][full citation needed]

Under reamed piles foundation is used for the following soils:-

1. Under reamed piles are used in black cotton soil: This type of soil expands when it comes in contact with water and contraction occurs when water is removed. So that cracks appear in the construction done on such clay. An under reamed pile is used in the base to remove this defect.

2. Under reamed piles are used in low bearing capacity Outdated soil (filled soil)

3.Under reamed piles are used in sandy soil when water table is high.

4. Under reamed piles are used, Where lifting forces appear at the base of foundation.

Augercast pile

[edit]

An augercast pile, often known as a continuous flight augering (CFA) pile, is formed by drilling into the ground with a hollow stemmed continuous flight auger to the required depth or degree of resistance. No casing is required. A cement grout mix is then pumped down the stem of the auger. While the cement grout is pumped, the auger is slowly withdrawn, conveying the soil upward along the flights. A shaft of fluid cement grout is formed to ground level. Reinforcement can be installed. Recent innovations in addition to stringent quality control allows reinforcing cages to be placed up to the full length of a pile when required.[citation needed]

Augercast piles cause minimal disturbance and are often used for noise-sensitive and environmentally-sensitive sites. Augercast piles are not generally suited for use in contaminated soils, because of expensive waste disposal costs. In cases such as these, a displacement pile (like Olivier piles) may provide the cost efficiency of an augercast pile and minimal environmental impact. In ground containing obstructions or cobbles and boulders, augercast piles are less suitable as refusal above the design pile tip elevation may be encountered.[citation needed]

Small Sectional Flight Auger piling rigs can also be used for piled raft foundations. These produce the same type of pile as a Continuous Flight Auger rig but using smaller, more lightweight equipment. This piling method is fast, cost-effective and suitable for the majority of ground types.[5][6]

Pier and grade beam foundation

[edit]

In drilled pier foundations, the piers can be connected with grade beams on which the structure sits, sometimes with heavy column loads bearing directly on the piers. In some residential construction, the piers are extended above the ground level, and wood beams bearing on the piers are used to support the structure. This type of foundation results in a crawl space underneath the building in which wiring and duct work can be laid during construction or re-modelling.[7]

Speciality piles

[edit]

Jet-piles

[edit]

In jet piling high pressure water is used to set piles.[8] High pressure water cuts through soil with a high-pressure jet flow and allows the pile to be fitted.[9] One advantage of Jet Piling: the water jet lubricates the pile and softens the ground.[10] The method is in use in Norway.[11]

Micropiles

[edit]

Micropiles are small diameter, generally less than 300mm diameter, elements that are drilled and grouted in place.  They typically get their capacity from skin friction along the sides of the element, but can be end bearing in hard rock as well. Micropiles are usually heavily reinforced with steel comprising more than 40% of their cross section. They can be used as direct structural support or as ground reinforcement elements.  Due to their relatively high cost and the type of equipment used to install these elements, they are often used where access restrictions and or very difficult ground conditions (cobbles and boulders, construction debris, karst, environmental sensitivity) exists or to retrofit existing structures.  Occasionally, in difficult ground, they are used for new construction foundation elements. Typical applications include underpinning, bridge, transmission tower and slope stabilization projects.[6][12][13][14]

Tripod piles

[edit]

The use of a tripod rig to install piles is one of the more traditional ways of forming piles. Although unit costs are generally higher than with most other forms of piling,[citation needed] it has several advantages which have ensured its continued use through to the present day. The tripod system is easy and inexpensive to bring to site, making it ideal for jobs with a small number of piles.[clarification needed]

Sheet piles

[edit]
Sheet piles are used to restrain soft soil above the bedrock in this excavation

Sheet piling is a form of driven piling using thin interlocking sheets of steel to obtain a continuous barrier in the ground. The main application of sheet piles is in retaining walls and cofferdams erected to enable permanent works to proceed. Normally, vibrating hammer, t-crane and crawle drilling are used to establish sheet piles.[citation needed]

Soldier piles

[edit]
A soldier pile wall using reclaimed railway sleepers as lagging.

Soldier piles, also known as king piles or Berlin walls, are constructed of steel H sections spaced about 2 to 3 m apart and are driven or drilled prior to excavation. As the excavation proceeds, horizontal timber sheeting (lagging) is inserted behind the H pile flanges.

The horizontal earth pressures are concentrated on the soldier piles because of their relative rigidity compared to the lagging. Soil movement and subsidence is minimized by installing the lagging immediately after excavation to avoid soil loss.[citation needed] Lagging can be constructed by timber, precast concrete, shotcrete and steel plates depending on spacing of the soldier piles and the type of soils.

Soldier piles are most suitable in conditions where well constructed walls will not result in subsidence such as over-consolidated clays, soils above the water table if they have some cohesion, and free draining soils which can be effectively dewatered, like sands.[citation needed]

Unsuitable soils include soft clays and weak running soils that allow large movements such as loose sands. It is also not possible to extend the wall beyond the bottom of the excavation, and dewatering is often required.[citation needed]

Screw piles

[edit]

Screw piles, also called helical piers and screw foundations, have been used as foundations since the mid 19th century in screw-pile lighthouses.[citation needed] Screw piles are galvanized iron pipe with helical fins that are turned into the ground by machines to the required depth. The screw distributes the load to the soil and is sized accordingly.

Suction piles

[edit]

Suction piles are used underwater to secure floating platforms. Tubular piles are driven into the seabed (or more commonly dropped a few metres into a soft seabed) and then a pump sucks water out at the top of the tubular, pulling the pile further down.

The proportions of the pile (diameter to height) are dependent upon the soil type. Sand is difficult to penetrate but provides good holding capacity, so the height may be as short as half the diameter. Clays and muds are easy to penetrate but provide poor holding capacity, so the height may be as much as eight times the diameter. The open nature of gravel means that water would flow through the ground during installation, causing 'piping' flow (where water boils up through weaker paths through the soil). Therefore, suction piles cannot be used in gravel seabeds.[citation needed]

Adfreeze piles

[edit]
Adfreeze piles supporting a building in Utqiaġvik, Alaska

In high latitudes where the ground is continuously frozen, adfreeze piles are used as the primary structural foundation method.

Adfreeze piles derive their strength from the bond of the frozen ground around them to the surface of the pile.[citation needed]

Adfreeze pile foundations are particularly sensitive in conditions which cause the permafrost to melt. If a building is constructed improperly then it can melt the ground below, resulting in a failure of the foundation system.[citation needed]

Vibrated stone columns

[edit]

Vibrated stone columns are a ground improvement technique where columns of coarse aggregate are placed in soils with poor drainage or bearing capacity to improve the soils.[citation needed]

Hospital piles

[edit]

Specific to marine structures, hospital piles (also known as gallow piles) are built to provide temporary support to marine structure components during refurbishment works. For example, when removing a river pontoon, the brow will be attached to hospital pile to support it. They are normal piles, usually with a chain or hook attachment.[citation needed]

Piled walls

[edit]
Sheet piling, by a bridge, was used to block a canal in New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina damaged it.

Piled walls can be drivene or bored. They provide special advantages where available working space dictates and open cut excavation not feasible. Both methods offer technically effective and offer a cost efficient temporary or permanent means of retaining the sides of bulk excavations even in water bearing strata. When used in permanent works, these walls can be designed to resist vertical loads in addition lateral load from retaining soil. Construction of both methods is the same as for foundation bearing piles. Contiguous walls are constructed with small gaps between adjacent piles. The spacing of the piles can be varied to provide suitable bending stiffness.

Secant piled walls

[edit]

Secant pile walls are constructed such that space is left between alternate 'female' piles for the subsequent construction of 'male' piles.[clarification needed] Construction of 'male' piles involves boring through the concrete in the 'female' piles hole in order to key 'male' piles between. The male pile is the one where steel reinforcement cages are installed, though in some cases the female piles are also reinforced.[citation needed]

Secant piled walls can either be true hard/hard, hard/intermediate (firm), or hard/soft, depending on design requirements. Hard refers to structural concrete and firm or soft is usually a weaker grout mix containing bentonite.[citation needed] All types of wall can be constructed as free standing cantilevers, or may be propped if space and sub-structure design permit. Where party wall agreements allow, ground anchors can be used as tie backs.

Slurry walls

[edit]

A slurry wall is a barrier built under ground using a mix of bentonite and water to prevent the flow of groundwater. A trench that would collapse due to the hydraulic pressure in the surrounding soil does not collapse as the slurry balances the hydraulic pressure.

Deep mixing/mass stabilization techniques

[edit]

These are essentially variations of in situ reinforcements in the form of piles (as mentioned above), blocks or larger volumes.

Cement, lime/quick lime, flyash, sludge and/or other binders (sometimes called stabilizer) are mixed into the soil to increase bearing capacity. The result is not as solid as concrete, but should be seen as an improvement of the bearing capacity of the original soil.

The technique is most often applied on clays or organic soils like peat. The mixing can be carried out by pumping the binder into the soil whilst mixing it with a device normally mounted on an excavator or by excavating the masses, mixing them separately with the binders and refilling them in the desired area. The technique can also be used on lightly contaminated masses as a means of binding contaminants, as opposed to excavating them and transporting to landfill or processing.

Materials

[edit]

Timber

[edit]

As the name implies, timber piles are made of wood.

Historically, timber has been a plentiful, locally available resource in many areas. Today, timber piles are still more affordable than concrete or steel. Compared to other types of piles (steel or concrete), and depending on the source/type of timber, timber piles may not be suitable for heavier loads.

A main consideration regarding timber piles is that they should be protected from rotting above groundwater level. Timber will last for a long time below the groundwater level. For timber to rot, two elements are needed: water and oxygen. Below the groundwater level, dissolved oxygen is lacking even though there is ample water. Hence, timber tends to last for a long time below the groundwater level. An example is Venice, which has had timber pilings since its beginning; even most of the oldest piles are still in use. In 1648, the Royal Palace of Amsterdam was constructed on 13,659 timber piles that still survive today since they were below groundwater level. Timber that is to be used above the water table can be protected from decay and insects by numerous forms of wood preservation using pressure treatment (alkaline copper quaternary (ACQ), chromated copper arsenate (CCA), creosote, etc.).

Splicing timber piles is still quite common and is the easiest of all the piling materials to splice. The normal method for splicing is by driving the leader pile first, driving a steel tube (normally 60–100 cm long, with an internal diameter no smaller than the minimum toe diameter) half its length onto the end of the leader pile. The follower pile is then simply slotted into the other end of the tube and driving continues. The steel tube is simply there to ensure that the two pieces follow each other during driving. If uplift capacity is required, the splice can incorporate bolts, coach screws, spikes or the like to give it the necessary capacity.

Iron

[edit]

Cast iron may be used for piling. These may be ductile.[citation needed]

Steel

[edit]
Cutaway illustration. Deep inclined (battered) pipe piles support a precast segmented skyway where upper soil layers are weak muds.

Pipe piles are a type of steel driven pile foundation and are a good candidate for inclined (battered) piles.

Pipe piles can be driven either open end or closed end. When driven open end, soil is allowed to enter the bottom of the pipe or tube. If an empty pipe is required, a jet of water or an auger can be used to remove the soil inside following driving. Closed end pipe piles are constructed by covering the bottom of the pile with a steel plate or cast steel shoe.

In some cases, pipe piles are filled with concrete to provide additional moment capacity or corrosion resistance. In the United Kingdom, this is generally not done in order to reduce the cost.[citation needed] In these cases corrosion protection is provided by allowing for a sacrificial thickness of steel or by adopting a higher grade of steel. If a concrete filled pipe pile is corroded, most of the load carrying capacity of the pile will remain intact due to the concrete, while it will be lost in an empty pipe pile. The structural capacity of pipe piles is primarily calculated based on steel strength and concrete strength (if filled). An allowance is made for corrosion depending on the site conditions and local building codes. Steel pipe piles can either be new steel manufactured specifically for the piling industry or reclaimed steel tubular casing previously used for other purposes such as oil and gas exploration.

H-Piles are structural beams that are driven in the ground for deep foundation application. They can be easily cut off or joined by welding or mechanical drive-fit splicers. If the pile is driven into a soil with low pH value, then there is a risk of corrosion, coal-tar epoxy or cathodic protection can be applied to slow or eliminate the corrosion process. It is common to allow for an amount of corrosion in design by simply over dimensioning the cross-sectional area of the steel pile. In this way, the corrosion process can be prolonged up to 50 years.[citation needed]

Prestressed concrete piles

[edit]

Concrete piles are typically made with steel reinforcing and prestressing tendons to obtain the tensile strength required, to survive handling and driving, and to provide sufficient bending resistance.

Long piles can be difficult to handle and transport. Pile joints can be used to join two or more short piles to form one long pile. Pile joints can be used with both precast and prestressed concrete piles.

Composite piles

[edit]

A "composite pile" is a pile made of steel and concrete members that are fastened together, end to end, to form a single pile. It is a combination of different materials or different shaped materials such as pipe and H-beams or steel and concrete.

'Pile jackets' encasing old concrete piles in a saltwater environment to prevent corrosion and consequential weakening of the piles when cracks allow saltwater to contact the internal steel reinforcement rods

Construction machinery for driving piles into the ground

[edit]

Construction machinery used to drive piles into the ground:[15]

  • Pile driver is a device for placing piles in their designed position.
  • Diesel pile hammer is a device for hammering piles into the ground.
  • Hydraulic hammer is removable working equipment of hydraulic excavators, hydroficated machines (stationary rock breakers, loaders, manipulators, pile driving hammers) used for processing strong materials (rock, soil, metal) or pile driving elements by impact of falling parts dispersed by high-pressure fluid.
  • Vibratory pile driver is a machine for driving piles into sandy and clay soils.
  • Press-in pile driver is a machine for sinking piles into the ground by means of static force transmission.[16]
  • Universal drilling machine.

Construction machinery for replacement piles

[edit]

Construction machinery used to construct replacement piles:[15]

  • Sectional Flight Auger or Continuous Flight Auger
  • Reverse circulation drilling
  • Ring bit concentric drilling

See also

[edit]
  • Eurocode EN 1997
  • International Society for Micropiles
  • Post in ground construction also called earthfast or posthole construction; a historic method of building wooden structures.
  • Stilt house, also known as a lake house; an ancient, historic house type built on pilings.
  • Shallow foundations
  • Pile bridge
  • Larssen sheet piling

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Offshore Wind Turbine Foundations, 2009-09-09, accessed 2010-04-12.
  2. ^ a b Constructing a turbine foundation Archived 21 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine Horns Rev project, Elsam monopile foundation construction process, accessed 2010-04-12]
  3. ^ Horns Revolution Archived 14 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Modern Power Systems, 2002-10-05, accessed 2010-04-14.
  4. ^ "Lynn and Inner Dowsing description". Archived from the original on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 23 July 2010.
  5. ^ a b Handbook on Under-reamed and bored compaction pile foundation, Central building research institute Roorkee, Prepared by Devendra Sharma, M. P. Jain, Chandra Prakash
  6. ^ a b Siel, Barry D.; Anderson, Scott A. "Implementation of Micropiles by the Federal Highway Administration" (PDF). Federal Highway Administration (US). cite journal: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  7. ^ Marshall, Brain (April 2000). "How House Construction Works". How Stuff Works. HowStuffWorks, Inc. Retrieved 4 April 2013.
  8. ^ "jet-pile". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 2 August 2020.
  9. ^ Guan, Chengli; Yang, Yuyou (21 February 2019). "Field Study on the Waterstop of the Rodin Jet Pile". Applied Sciences. doi:10.3390/app9081709. Retrieved 2 August 2020.
  10. ^ "Press-in with Water Jetting". Giken.com. Giken Ltd. Retrieved 2 August 2020.
  11. ^ "City Lade, Trondheim". Jetgrunn.no. Jetgrunn AS. Retrieved 2 August 2020.
  12. ^ Omer, Joshua R. (2010). "A Numerical Model for Load Transfer and Settlement of Bored Cast In-Situ Piles". Proceedings of the 35th Annual Conference on Deep Foundations. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 20 July 2011.
  13. ^ "International Society for Micropiles". Retrieved 2 February 2007.
  14. ^ "GeoTechTools". Geo-Institute. Retrieved 15 April 2022.
  15. ^ a b McNeil, Ian (1990). An Encyclopaedia of the history of technolology. Routledge. ISBN 9780415147927. Retrieved 20 July 2022 – via Internet Archive.
  16. ^ "General description of the press-in pile driving unit". Concrete Pumping Melbourne. 13 October 2021. Archived from the original on 25 December 2022. Retrieved 20 July 2022.

References

[edit]
  • Italiantrivelle Foundation Industry Archived 25 June 2014 at the Wayback Machine The Deep Foundation web portal Italiantrivelle is the number one source of information regarding the Foundation Industry. (Link needs to be removed or updated, links to inappropriate content)
  • Fleming, W. G. K. et al., 1985, Piling Engineering, Surrey University Press; Hunt, R. E., Geotechnical Engineering Analysis and Evaluation, 1986, McGraw-Hill.
  • Coduto, Donald P. Foundation Design: Principles and Practices 2nd ed., Prentice-Hall Inc., 2001.
  • NAVFAC DM 7.02 Foundations and Earth Structures U.S. Naval Facilities Engineering Command, 1986.
  • Rajapakse, Ruwan., Pile Design and Construction Guide, 2003
  • Tomlinson, P.J., Pile Design and Construction Practice, 1984
  • Stabilization of Organic Soils Archived 22 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine
  • Sheet piling handbook, 2010
[edit]
  • Deep Foundations Institute

 

Waterproofing is the process of making an item, person or framework water-proof or water-resistant to ensure that it continues to be reasonably unaffected by water or withstands the ingress of water under specified problems. Such things may be used in wet atmospheres or underwater to defined midsts. Water-resistant and waterproof often describe resistance to infiltration of water in its fluid state and potentially under stress, whereas wet proof describes resistance to moisture or wetness. Permeation of water vapour via a product or framework is reported as a wetness vapor transmission price (MVTR). The hulls of watercrafts and ships were once waterproofed by applying tar or pitch. Modern things may be waterproofed by using water-repellent coatings or by sealing joints with gaskets or o-rings. Waterproofing is made use of in reference to developing frameworks (such as cellars, decks, or wet areas), watercraft, canvas, clothes (raincoats or waders), electronic devices and paper product packaging (such as cartons for fluids).

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